EGYPT

CULTURAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION :

Egypt enjoys a deep-rooted civilization which began when the ancient Egyptians established on the bank of the River Nile the first central state. Throughout centuries, the Egyptians interacted with other civilizations and peoples.Yet, Egypt kept its cultural peculiarity which historians divide into Pharaonic Era which lasted for 3000 years, Greek Era which also lasted for 3000 years, Roman Era which interacted with Coptic Era after Christianity entered Egypt, and finally the Islamic Conquest of Egypt and the Ottoman Rule till the Modern Era launched by Mohamed Ali Pasha, the founder of modern Egypt.

 

Egypt is perhaps one of the very few countries that has a big haul of history amidst historical controversies.  People like the Jewish hero Moses, Queen Cleopatra, Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great, King Tut and others have donned the land.  Egypt showcases much of man's history, his achievements and the glorious monuments that stand to tell a tale for our future generations.

Egypt is located in the north eastern tip of Africa and is bounded by Israel to the East, the Mediterranean Sea to the North, Libya to the West and Sudan to the South.  Officially, Egypt is known as the Arab Republic of Egypt.Cairo, which happens to be the largest city in Africa and the Middle East, is Egypt's capital.  Egyptian Pounds is the official national currency and is divided into 100 Piastres (currently - May 2007, one US Dollar gets you about 5.7 Egyptian Pounds).The main religion in Egypt is Sunni Moslem (about 90%) with the rest of the population being predominantly of Christian (Coptic) faith.  The main language is Arabic, with English and French also commonly spoken amongst the more educated classes.

HISTORY:

A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700−2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.

The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans, wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet. The British military occupation of Egypt lasted until 1954. The Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Islam and Christianity; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic.

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING:

Location :

Situated at the northeastern corner of Africa, the Arab Republic of Egypt has an area of 1,001,450 sq km (386,662 sq mi), extending 1,572 km (997 mi) SE – NW and 1,196 km (743 mi) NE – SW . However, the cultivated and settled area (Nile Valley, Delta, and oases) constitutes only about 3.5% of Egypt's land area; the Libyan and Western deserts occupy about 75% of the total. Comparatively, the area occupied by Egypt is slightly more than three times the size of the state of New Mexico. Beyond the Suez Canal in the east, the Sinai Peninsula overlaps into Asia; the Sinai was occupied by Israeli forces from 1967 to 1982.
Egypt is bounded on the N by the Mediterranean Sea, on the E by Israel and the Red Sea, on the S by Sudan, and on the W by Libya. The total land boundary length is 2,665 km (1,656 mi) and its total coastline is 2,450 km (1,522 mi). Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is located in the northeastern part of the country. 


Climate:




Egypt is a huge country with plenty of variety in its climate; when it’s chilly and wet in Alexandria, it can be ravishingly hot in Aswan.The best time to visit most sights, including the pyramids and the Valley of the Kings, is from February to April and October to November. During these months the heat reminds you that it's the ‘Land of the Sun', but not too hot to be enjoyable. At this time, the skies and sea are a perfect blue. The downside is that these are the most popular times of the year for visitors.In April, the hot, dusty khamsin wind blows from the Sahara, making touring of sights potentially troublesome; during an intense sand storm, vision may be reduced to a few meters.During the hot, dry summers (June-August) there’s always the risk of dehydration and heat exhaustion, which might confine visitors indoors during the early afternoon.Winters (November-Februrary) are usually mild and often overcast, leaving the desert and its ancient monuments looking lacklustre. Rainfall is negligible except on the coast.    
A phenomenon of Egypt's climate is the hot spring wind that blows across the country. The winds, known to Europeans as the sirocco and to Egyptians as the khamsin, usually arrive in April but occasionally occur in March and May. The winds form in small but vigorous low-pressure areas in the Isthmus of Suez and sweep across the northern coast of Africa. Unobstructed by geographical features, the winds reach high velocities and carry great quantities of sand and dust from the deserts. These sandstorms, often accompanied by winds of up to 140 kilometers per hour, can cause temperatures to rise as much as 20° C in two hours. The winds blow intermittently and may continue for days, cause illness in people and animals, harm crops, and occasionally damage houses and infrastructure.


Topography:

Egypt is divided into four major parts:

1. The Nile Valley and Delta

It extends from north of the valley to the Mediterranean Sea and is divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt: extending from Wadi Halfa to the south of Cairo and from North Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea. The River Nile in the north is divided into two branches, Dumiat and Rashid which embrace the highly fertile agricultural lands of the Delta.

2- The Western Desert

It extends from the Nile Valley in the East to the Libyan borders in the west, and from the Mediterranean in the north to Egypt's Southern borders. It is divided into:

• The Northern section includes the coastal plane, the northern plateau and the Great Depression, Natroun Valley and Baharia Oasis

• The Southern section includes Farafra, Kharga, Dakhla, and el-Owainat in the extreme south.

3- The Eastern Desert

Extends from the Nile Valley in the West to the Red Sea, Suez Gulf, and Suez Canal in the East, and from Lake Manzala on the Mediterranean in the North to Egypt's southern borders with Sudan in the south. The Eastern Desert is marked with the Eastern Mountains that extend along the Red Sea with peaks that rise to about 3000 feet above sea level. This desert is rich with natural resources including various ores such as gold, coal, and oil.

4- The Sinai Peninsula

Sinai is shaped like a triangle with its base at the Mediterranean in the North and its tip in the South at Ras Mohammed, the Gulf of Aqaba to the East and the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal to the West. It is topographically divided into three main sections: 
• The Southern section is an extremely tough terrain. It is composed of high rise Granite Mountains. Mount Catherine rises about 2640 meters above sea level, a matter that makes it the highest mountain top in Egypt .
• The Central Section is bounded by the Mediterranean to the North and the At-Teeh plateau to the south. It is a plain area with abundant water resources derived from rain water that flows from southern heights to the central plateau.

  

Both the Nile Valley and the Delta occupy about 33,000 km2, accounting to less than 4% of the total area of the country. The Western Desert occupies an area of about 671,000 km2. The Eastern Desert occupies about a quarter of the total area of Egypt, (some 225,000 km2).
The Sinai Peninsula occupies about 61,000 km2.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

Family:

For most contemporary Egyptians, the family remains the central and most important institution in their everyday lives. Few individuals live independently from their immediate family or kin, and single-person households are almost unheard of. Individuals of all classes constantly articulate and defend the importance of family within the community and the nation. Issues relating to family relations, gender roles, and authority are pervasive throughout the society, as evidenced by conversations in homes, on the street, and in the media. Further, the proper functioning of families is part of a religious dialogue that is increasingly heard in all sectors of the society.
Egypt's estimated population in 1999 was 66,050,004, with 36.1 percent of the population under age fifteen, 60 percent between ages fifteen and sixty-five, and 3.7 over age sixty-five. Ninety-five percent of the country's population is Muslim, and approximately 5 percent is Coptic. Approximately 98 percent of the population between twenty-five and sixty-five is or has been married, indicating the continuing primacy of founding a family through marriage for Egyptians of all classes.


Nuclear Family:

The smallest family unit specified by Egyptian terminology is the word bait, which means "house." Bait is used to specify the actual residence of a family or the group of people who live under the same roof most of the time. Although this usually refers to the nuclear family, it can also include a spinster aunt, a widowed parent, or any other member of the extended family who is a part of the residential group. Egyptian family terms seem to be even more ambiguous than those of other Arab countries such as Saudi Arabia, for example, where individuals have a stronger sense of specificity of genealogy (Rugh 1984).


The Extended Family:

In Egypt, the widely recognized importance of family stands in direct contrast to the ambiguity of linguistic terms dealing with the institution. When referring to their families, Egyptians tend to use the Arabic word ahl, a broad term that encompasses various relationships, including immediate family related through blood ties, members of the household, and individuals related through marriage, and can, therefore, refer to up to 100 to 200 people. Another term, a'ila, is also commonly used, and can refer to either a nuclear or extended group of people, depending on context. The term a'ila carries with it the connotation of close relationship and mutual obligation.

The Egyptian linguistic ambiguity about kinship terms allows individuals to manipulate the concept of family to fit the context and situation. Family is the most important institution in most Egyptians' lives. Few people live apart from their immediate family or kin. CORY LANGLEY Constant references to family and family name allow individuals to place one another within the society and to identify important ties and reciprocal obligations. The honor, social standing, and wealth of a family are all interconnected, making the identification with family a primary social marker for every Egyptian.

Dynamics of the Family:

Class divisions within society play a vital role in Egyptian life. Egyptians have an incredibly fine-tuned sense of class, and this plays a part in every aspect of an individual's life. Primarily, these divisions are based on family, wealth, education, and experiences and/or education abroad. In addition, reputation, religious piety, and foreign ancestry (for example, having a Turkish mother, grandmother, etc.) may raise a family's social status in the eyes of others. The division by class is a distinctive but complex dividing line in the society that is constantly reflected in the written and oral media.
Furthermore, even though the major cities of Cairo and Alexandria are divided into newer and older, as well as richer and poorer sections, it is not customary for Egyptians to move, even if their financial situation improves substantially. As a result, older, well-to-do Egyptians are often found living in sections of the city that are considered middle class or, at times, even lower-middle class. Among these families, it is common for the older generation to buy apartments in their buildings for their children as they marry, thereby keeping them close. Among low-income communities, all family members routinely continue to live in the same apartment, and as the children marry, their spouses move in with the extended families. Among this group, individuals rely even more heavily on their families because they have fewer ties to other structures of power in the society.

Marriage and Courtship:




Marriage remains at the center of contemporary Egyptian social life. It is the primary focal point in the lives of both women and men, followed only by the birth of a child. The rights and obligations of husband and wife are defined by Islamic law, the division of labor by gender, and Egyptian cultural practice.A Muslim marriage gives a wife the unconditional right to economic support from her husband regardless of her own financial resources. She also remains in control of her property, including inheritance or earned income. However, in case of divorce, the ex-wife is only entitled to three months' alimony and to those possessions that she brought with her at the beginning of her marriage or those that she acquired with her own income, as well as any portion of her mahr that is due her. Mahr is a sum of money or durable property that, according to Islamic practice, a husband agrees to pay to his bride at any time prior to or during the marriage or upon divorce.
In return for the unconditional economic support of his family, a husband has certain rights within the marriage, the most important of which is the right to restrict his wife's physical mobility, which is often interpreted as the right of a husband to prevent his wife from working outside the home. He also has the unilateral right to end the marriage without the consent of his wife. And in case of divorce, the husband legally receives custody of the children after they have reached the age of seven. It is, however, customary for girls to remain with their mothers after a divorce. Recently, changes in the law in favor of women have curtailed some of husbands' rights. Primarily, women are now able to file for divorce, especially in cases of domestic violence, and men must now legally file for divorce and cannot divorce a woman simply by uttering "I divorce thee" three times, as is permitted by the Qur'an. Cultural practices, such as cross-cousin marriages and sizable sums of money through the mahr, have evolved to protect women and counterbalance the unequal rights in cases of divorce. However, the relatively low incidence of divorce in Egypt (according to the last census at 2%), particularly after children are born, suggests that marriage is a stable institution.


Females/Males Role:


Egyptian society is organized on the principle that men and women simply have different natures, talents, and inherent tendencies. This becomes most apparent in the realm of the family where each gender has a different part to play. Men are created for going out in the world and are responsible for providing financially for the family. Women are suited for remaining within family boundaries, caring for the home, the children, and the husband. Further, women's inherent sexuality is believed to be constantly endangering the social harmony of society (specifically, men) and is, therefore, best controlled through women's modesty and women remaining as much as possible within the private sphere of the family. This belief is reinforced through cultural and religious norms that are increasingly advocating that family roles of both women and men are fundamental in maintaining societal structure; dominant gender constructions therefore support keeping women in the home and oppose women working and abandoning their primary roles (Macleod 1991). Nonetheless, contemporary images of women as economic assets and providers are rapidly coming into conflict with what are perceived as divinely inspired roles.
Gender roles in Egypt derive much of their legitimacy from the Qur'an. In particular, women are often the focus of quotes that supposedly refer to the appropriate roles and behaviors of women. At the same time, references to the role of women are scattered broadly throughout the Qur'an and are subject to interpretation.
Existing side by side and sometimes in contradiction to the reality of women's daily struggles in Egypt is the cultural and religious ideal of complementarity between the sexes. Within this concept, women are not devalued as persons, somehow considered to be inherently less valuable than men, or thought to be lacking in abilities. Instead, Egyptians tend to emphasize that everyone—men, women, and children—is thought to be part of an interrelated community, and that gender complementarity is part of the message of the religion. This concept of gender complementarity, particularly in the realm of the family, is an integral part of understanding the social structure of Egyptian society.


EDUCATION:


The role of education in society:

Education in Egypt was controlled by the Ulama and the Clergy before the nineteenth century. Most of the institutes were teaching theology. However, there were Churches and mosques in the villages that were teaching basic education to young boys. The first girls’ school was established around 1873. During the British rule, Egypt set up the first secular university along with a number of private schools. 

Over the passage of time, the education system of Egypt underwent change. During the 1950s, the main target was towards the improvement of education in Egypt. Gradually, many training institutes were started in the country, which were run and managed by different government ministries. Students had to complete basic education cycle in order to get enrolled to the training institutes. The training institutes provided vocational education both at secondary and higher levels. Subjects like Agriculture and Commerce were also started to be taught as part pf technical training curriculum. Students were provided subsidies and this resulted in increased number of students in the institutes. Egypt Universities also provided opportunities to the students who completed their graduation at secondary and technical institutes, to appear examinations without appearing regular classes in the institutes. As a result of these steps, education in Egypt provided ample skilled labor to the country. 

Since the late 1970s, government policies have attempted to reorient postsecondary education. The state expanded technical training programs in agriculture, commerce, and a variety of other fields. Student subsidies were partially responsible for a 15 percent annual increase in enrollments in the country's five-year technical institutes. The technical institutes were set up to provide the growing private sector with trained personnel and to alleviate the shortage of skilled labor. Universities, however, permitted graduates of secondary schools and technical institutes to enroll as "external students," which meant they could not attend classes but were allowed to sit for examinations and to earn degrees. The policy resulted in a flourishing clandestine trade in class notes and overburdened professors with additional examinations. Further, widespread desire for a university degree led many students in technical institutes to view their curricula as simply a stepping-stone to a university degree.

Primary Education:

Early childhood education is rooted in Arabic culture. Egyptian nursery schools and kindergartens date back to the turn of the twentieth century. In the 1930s, the Child Guidance Clinic attached to the Higher Institute of Education (now Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University) was founded. The movement for out-of-home education grew as more women entered the workforce and as they formed Women's Associations. Childcare centers and homes accept infants as young as two months. These are primarily "child keepers," lacking educationally oriented services or intervention programs. Day care centers are regulated by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Nursery schools accept children as young as two years, but three is the most common minimum. Some nursery schools are attached to private regular schools (language schools and foreign schools) but are considered high cost. Others, sponsored by the Ministry of Social Affairs, are widespread and inexpensive, but lack resources and personnel. Some are sponsored by private organizations, especially women's societies, and some by mosques, churches, industrial factories and recreational clubs.

The National Conference for the Development of Primary Education Curricula in 1993, maintained the dual aims of Islamic religious concerns and secular modern concerns when it identified as major goals for basic education:

• "Preparing and developing Egyptian citizens in a manner that will assist them to adjust to the demands of a modern changing society and to face the renewable challenges, besides enabling them to comprehend the religious, national, and cultural dimensions of their identity."
• "Providing the society with citizens who have mastered basic scientific skills, with special emphasis on skills of reading, writing, arithmetic, and the disciplines of future sciences (science, mathematics, and languages)."
• "Providing citizens with the essential fundamental knowledge on health, nutrition, the environment, and the development-related issues."
• "Preparing and assisting citizens to develop transferable skills, including analytical skills, critical thinking, scientific skills, and problem-solving skills that can enable them to respond to ongoing demands and adjust to scientific and technological progress."

The Ministry revised primary school curricula and teaching methods and increased the number of teachers in the 1990s. Primary education was redesigned into two levels. The first level includes grades 1 to 3 where the basic skills of reading, writing, and mathematics should be mastered (in addition to religious education). At the end of the second level, grades 4 and 5, children should be able to utilize these skills in everyday activities. Children are tested at the end of grades 3 and 5 in mathematics and Arabic, plus science and social studies at grade 5. Up to 70 percent of the curriculum is spent in acquiring skill in Arabic, although classes in English (for fourth grade) were introduced in 1994, as were French classes in 1995. In the 1990s, an experimental language school was established to teach French, and science clubs were established. Special classes and/or schools for the gifted and handicapped are also provided.


Secondary Education:




From the Ptolemaic Age (323-200 B.C.) through the rule of Mohamed Ali in the first half of the nineteenth century, secondary education in Egypt was intended to prepare students for higher education or for work in governmental departments. The three-year general secondary curriculum continues to prepare students for higher education.Educational opportunities vary widely in Egypt, and many students engage private tutors during their third year in order to prepare for the national test (Thanawiyya Aama). The exam is extremely difficult, covering all content areas throughout the secondary curriculum. Students are ranked for possible college application on the basis of their exam scores. The ranking is very important because exam scores determine if university admission is possible and to which major (faculty) the student will be assigned. Universities cannot accommodate all secondary level graduates, and poor scores remand students to applying to technical institutes.

Traditionally, failing in one subject in the national exam meant retaking all subjects. After studying secondary school certification in the United States, United Kingdom, and France, the system was changed in the 1990s by extending the examination, requiring testing in some compulsory subjects, providing a choice from different sets of subjects, and providing unlimited chances for retaking the examinations. The new system was phased in during the late 1990s; the new exam, however, was not upgraded to assess higher-order skills.Technical education comprises industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools. Advanced technical schools offer a five-year program to train "Senior Technicians." Technical secondary schools provide a three-year program to train "Technicians," and vocational secondary schools offer a three-year program to train "Craftsmen." In the 1990s, the curriculum and texts were revised in industrial schools and new specializations were added, including: mechanical, marine, vehicles, architecture and building, decorative, textiles, metal work, medical aids, railways, printing, and electrical. The curriculum is intended to provide students with knowledge and skills required in practical work situations as well as a basic academic core of courses. Technical education saw the introduction of application-oriented courses, new specializations, new equipment, new secondary schools, and improvements in technical teacher training.
Different organizations, companies, philanthropic societies, and ministries also offer training with study programs below university level that extend for three years. Vocational schools award a technical diploma equivalent to that of the industrial secondary schools. Their curriculum and training methods differ from those of the Ministry of Education. Fields of study include health education, nursing and first aid, transportation, mining, industrial education, communication, electrical power, and construction and building. In 1994-1995, enrollments in technical secondary programs totaled about 1.75 million, more than twice the enrollments in general secondary education. In 1992, approximately 67 percent of all secondary students were enrolled in a technical program. Only one percent of these students advanced to university study. The labor market cannot absorb all those graduating from the technical schools, and many remain unemployed for four to six years after graduation. School dropouts reaching labor force age in 1989-1990 numbered 162,000. In 2000, it was reported that 500,000 students leave the Ministry of Education's commercial, industrial, and agricultural secondary schools every year—400,000 as graduates and 100,00 as dropouts.


Higher Education:



There are essentially three types of universities: those offering preparation for the world of work; those concerned with development of scientific research serving the community and contributing to the development of various fields; and those offering general cultural and intellectual activities. In 1994-1995 and 1995-1996, presidential decrees authorized 35 new institutions to be located in different areas of the country and to include new disciplines such as genetic engineering and new branches of existing disciplines such as colleges of education. In 1996 a presidential decree authorized the development of four new private universities: Egypt's International University, Egypt's Science and Technology University, October Six University, and The October University for the Arts and Contemporary Sciences. Higher education institutions expanded from 144 institutes and colleges in 1981 to 208 in 1996. Tuition is free at public universities for Egyptians; foreign students pay modest tuition fees. Tuition at the American University in Cairo was $10,000 in 1997. It differs from Egyptian universities in that it is based on the departmental and credit-hour system. In September 2000, plans were announced for a new British not-for-profit university to open as early as October 2002. The initial curriculum will focus on areas crucial toEgypt's long-term growth: engineering, management, and information technology.
A Central Orientation Bureau controls admission to undergraduate studies. The bureau matches student preferences with the availability of places and programs at the institutions. Admission requires a General Secondary Education Certificate. Some departments also require oral and/or written entrance exams and/or interviews or high grades in qualifying subjects. In 1991-1992, universities admitted 74,310 students. By 1996, admissions more than tripled, totaling 237,873. In 1991-1992, 11,899 students earned undergraduate degrees; by 1995-1996, this number had risen to 14,587. In 1991-1992, a total of 4,495 Masters degrees were awarded; in 1995-1996 this number was 6,097. In 1991-1992, some 2,128 doctorates were granted; the total rose to 2,818 in 1995-1996. In all, a total of 23,502 university degrees (at all levels) were awarded in 1995-1996 compared to 18,522 in 1991-1992.
While higher education is free for all Egyptians; foreign students pay modest tuition fees. Hostels are provided for Egyptian students from distant rural regions who need financial assistance. Separate hostels are available for males and females. Meals, medical care, and social services are also provided. Board and lodging are heavily subsidized. Fifty million Egyptian pounds have been allocated to upgrade university laboratories and relevant equipment. Ten million pounds have also been allocated for upgrading computer laboratories and computer instruction. An additional 50 million pounds are earmarked for upgrading university libraries. New undergraduate studies using English and French as the languages of instruction have been introduced in the colleges of commerce, economics, political science, and management. Plans for the "science of the future" specialized centers focusing on specialized disciplines such as genetic engineering, space, and analysis of new global trends, are to be introduced in all universities. The Genetic Engineering Center for Biological Technology was established at Menoufia and the Center for Futuristic studies at Assiut University. Computer education has been introduced, and colleges for computer science and information will be established at Cairo, Ein Shams, Mansoura, and Helwan Universities.
Several non-university advanced educational opportunities also exist. The National Institute for Higher Administration in Cairo provides training in administration for various levels of in-service personnel from all ministries and organizations. The English for Specific Purposes Center in Alexandria provides postgraduate study in linguistics and translation. Full-time students study for one year, while part-time students study for two years. Successful completion results in a diploma in linguistics or translation. The Higher Institute of Technology in Banha provides university-level education in various specializations in technological fields. The International Center for Inspection and Control Studies in Alexandria conducts training for university graduates from Egypt and Arab and African countries in a program lasting one year.

Schools of art and music include the Academy of Arts (Giza), Higher Institute of Ballet (Cairo with branches in Alexandria and Ismailia), Higher Institute of Cinema (Cairo), Higher Institute of Theatre Arts (Cairo), Higher Institute of Arab Music (Cairo), Higher Institute of Music (Cairo), Higher Institute of Folklore (Cairo), Higher Institute of Art Criticism (Cairo), and the Higher Institute of Child Arts (Cairo). The French University in Egypt (Cairo) offers a wide range of courses and hosts study-abroad students.
Postsecondary colleges and institutes were created to offer non-traditional disciplines and to respond rapidly to societal needs. Engineering and Technological Education Institutes, established in the 1990s, produce engineers who combine both theoretical and applied expertise. In 1995-1996, five institutes enrolled 3,854 students. Specialized Education Institutes offer training in music education, technical education, kindergarten education, home economics, educational technology, educational media, physical education, one-room school teaching, special education, and English. In 1995-1996, enrollment was 14,019 students. Private institutes offer training in areas such as computer technology, social work, tourism, hotel management, agricultural and management cooperatives, economics media, and language. Private junior institutes train in social work, secretarial skills and computers. In 1995-1996, some 43,766 students wereregistered. Technical Industrial Institutes produce graduates to fill the gap between expert engineers and technical laborers. In 1995-1996, some 22 institutes enrolled 56,491 students. Commercial and hotel institutes provide further education for graduates of commercial secondary high schools. In 1995-1996, some 65,721 students were registered. Health care, nutrition, housing and social care are heavily subsidized for students at institutes.
In 1995-1996, Egyptian universities and higher institutes hosted 3,493 foreign undergraduates and 1,299 postgraduate students. An additional 104 foreign students attended training centers. The Educational Center for Arabic language Instruction teaches Arabic to international students and has various clubs provide enriching experiences. Egypt participates in the American Project Hope (for nursing institutes), Fulbright educational exchanges, the German Corporation for Academic Exchange, and international university linkages for doctoral candidate supervision. Egyptian professors are sent to universities and organizations in other countries.
The university and college libraries are said to be very poor and, in many cases, outdated. They suffer from lack of funds; from poorly trained, poorly paid, uninterested librarians with limited English facility; and in some cases, from deteriorating facilities. The main gaps in holdings are in periodicals, reference books, bibliographies, abstracts, and indexes. Reasonable quantities of Arabic books and journals are available, as are audiocassettes and quantities of microfilmed journals from the 1960s and 1970s, donated by USAID. Even 1992 reports indicate that the typical Egyptian student is unlikely to have used a library before arriving at college and is even unlikely to use one during college, given the emphasis on rote learning and the unfamiliarity with independent learning. University libraries include Alexandria University Central Library (45,000 books, 1,000,000 microfiches and films, 1200 periodicals, 2,500 manuscripts, and 17,500 dissertations); Assiut University (250,000 volumes); Al-Azhar University (60,000 volumes and 20,000 manuscripts); the American University in Cairo (275,000 volumes); and Cairo University (1,407,000 volumes and 10,000 periodicals). Other libraries in Cairo include the Arab League Information Center (30,000 volumes and 250 periodicals); Central Library of the Agricultural Research Center (25,000 volumes); and the Center of Documentation and Studies on Ancient Egypt (scientific and documentary reference center for all Egyptian Pharaonic monuments with 4,500 volumes and 33,000 photographs). National libraries include the Library of the National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics; National Archives of Central Administration, National Assembly Library; and the National Information and Documentation Center. Many of the higher institutes of art and music also contain specialized libraries. School libraries, when they exist, even in the 1990s are likely to be a locked cupboard in the headmaster's office.In the 1990s, Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak, the wife of the President, led a national campaign to build libraries for young people in Cairo and other major cities with children's areas, multimedia, trained librarians, children's programs, and locations in attractive surroundings in public parks or near recreational activities. The Ministry of Education developed plans for upgrading school libraries in 1993, and space for libraries is part of new school designs. Basic school library lists were prepared in the 1990s, and 2,975 tapes were provided for schools.

Literacy Rate:

Literacy programmes are teaching millions of Egyptians to read, but are struggling to keep up with the country’s high population growth."Egypt is one of the most challenging countries for any literacy programme," a literacy programme administrator at Catholic relief agency CARITAS told IPS. "You can’t afford to step off the pedal for a minute."One in every four Egyptians is illiterate. Despite free education and long- running literacy programmes, the number of illiterates has changed little in over two decades. Nearly 17 million adult Egyptians can neither read nor write, according to recent government data.Development experts prefer to see the glass half full. Ghada Gholam, an education programme specialist at UNESCO Egypt, has no illusions about the extent of the problem, but says progress in reducing Egypt’s illiteracy rate should not be overlooked.

"In percentage terms literacy rates have improved a lot over the past 10 years, though in actual numbers they (illiterates) have increased. And this is directly related to population growth," Gholam says. "There are lots of successful efforts, but with the increase in the population growth it is really difficult to decrease the number of illiterates."

Egypt’s population of 80 million is growing at 1.76 percent a year. The strongest growth is among the rural poor – those most inclined to chose immediate financial security over the long-term benefits of education.

Despite free, mandatory education for children ages 6 to 15, parents in poor communities often remove their kids from the education system to help work at home or in the fields.

"School enrolment is free, but parents don’t want to spend money on transport, private lessons or textbooks," says Ayman Tawdros, who supervises CARITAS literacy programmes in the southern Egyptian governorate Luxor. "If the children go to school they can’t work, and they are perceived as a financial burden on the family."The dropout rate is highest among girls. Tawdros says parents are less willing to invest in their daughters than their sons because they believe that by their late teens the girls will likely "marry off and move away."Education specialists say the pressure on girls increases significantly after puberty.

"Once a girl hits a certain age, especially in countries where there’s early marriage, her chances of being pulled out of school increase," says Diane Prouty of the Girls’ Improved Learning Outcomes (GILO), a USAID-funded project to increase girls’ access to quality education in rural Egyptian communities. "In addition, girls spend more hours doing housework and chores than boys, so they have less time to study or sleep."

Women account for 69 percent of illiterates in Egypt.

"Any serious effort to tackle illiteracy starts here," says Prouty. "The literature is really clear that girls who go to school have less mother mortality, lower infant mortality, more discretionary cash and, importantly, are much more likely to educate their own family."National campaigns to eradicate illiteracy became more vigorous following the creation of the Adult Education Authority (AEA) in 1991. The state agency works with educational institutions and various NGOs to eliminate illiteracy, with priority to individuals between the ages of 14 and 45. It develops the national curriculum and administers literacy exams.

But the numbers are daunting. Educators must teach 1.4 million Egyptians to read and write every year just to keep up with the country’s population growth. Only then can they begin to make a mark on the illiteracy rate, shaving off one percent for every 700,000 taught.National campaigns have helped reduce the country’s illiteracy rate from over 40 percent in 1991 to about 26 percent today. Gholam, however, says the statistics may not accurately reflect the significant progress made by organisations and individuals working outside the state education system.

"It’s very easy to get statistics for children in schools and those in formal learning- you can follow and track them," she says. "But informal learning is very difficult to track. Literacy is not only taught by the government; it is also taught by civil society, peers and family members."Literacy campaigns are utilising informal learning, encouraging university students to instruct their peers and literate family members to teach their relatives. But some say the government needs to show stronger commitment to mandatory education, stiffening the punishment for parents who fail to register their children or withdraw them from school.

POLITICAL SYSTEM:

Political Structure:

The Egyptian political system refers to the rules, regulation and practices, its political structure and fundamental laws, all which shows how the government, its state power and relationship between the state and society works. Egypt being a Republic with a democratic system outlines the political system and defines its public authorities.

The Constitutional System

The Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, adopted in 1971 and amended in 1980, has its roots in the English Common Law and the Napoleonic Code . It declares Egypt as an Arab Republic with a democratic system .


Executive Branch
The Head of the State is the President . Appointed by at least a one-third of the Majlis ash-Sha'ab , the People's Assembly , approved by at least two-third and elected by a popular referendum, he is elected for a time of six years and maybe re-elected for other subsequent terms. The implementation of general state policy is formulated and supervised by him. He is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Force . The last elected president of the republic was Mohammed Hosni Mubarak .
The supreme executive and administrative organ of the State is the government, consisting of the Council of Ministers . They are headed by the Prime Minister and he supervises the work of the government. The highest Executive and administrative organ of the Egyptian Republic is the Council of Ministers. The Ministers are all jointly responsible for the general policy of the State before the People's Assembly, and each Minister is responsible for the performance of his Ministry.The Parliament has the right to withdraw confidence from the Cabinet or from any Cabinet member. 
               
Legislative Branch
The Egyptian Parliament is bicameral in character and consists of the People's Assembly, or Majlis El-Shaab and the Advisory Council or Majlis El-Shourah.
The People's Assembly is the legislative branch of the State consisting of 444 directly elected members and 10 members appointed by the President , who serve for a term of five years . It has the power to approve the general policy, new laws, the budget and the development plans of the government. It also has the authority to undertake investigations and to levy taxes, besides appointing the Presidential candidate and passing a vote of no-confidence in the cabinet.
The Advisory Council with 140 members, out of which 70 members are nominated by the President , is Egypt's consultative council. It offers advices and consultation and proposes to the Assembly new laws and regulations.


Judicial Branch
The Egyptian Judicial System introduced into the country in 1854 and based on the English common law, Islamic law , and Napoleonic codes system is exercised through four categories of courts of justice. The highest judicial body, the Supreme Constitutional Court , the Court of Cessation , the Seven courts of Appeal in the various Governorates , and the Summary Tribunals in the districts are the principal court system in Egypt. It guarantees the independence of the judicial system.


The Party in Power
The Egyptian system is based on a Multi-party system . The Law 40 of 1977 regulates the development of political parties in Egypt. Though there is currently 17 active political parties representing various stands across the political spectrum, the law prohibits the creation of religious-based political parties in the state. Presently the National Democratic Party holds the majority of seats in the People's Assembly .


Local Government
Headed by a Governor who is appointed by the President, Egypt is administratively divided into 26 Governorates . Within their districts, local government units establish and run all public utilities, provide services and designate industrial areas. Working closely at various levels with local government is the Local Popular Councils .

Political Parties:

There are 24 Political parties in Egypt now :

Left-wing parties:

Progressive National Unionist Party (Hizb al Tagammo' al Watani al Taqadommi al Wahdwawi') - Leftist party, founded 7-7-1977.

Egyptian Arab Socialist Party (Hizb Misr al-arabi al-ishtaraki), founded 7-7-1977.

The Socialist Labour Party (Labour Party), founded 11-12-1978 - Suspended.

Umma Party (Hizb al-Umma), founded 26-5-1983.

Young Egypt Party (Hizb Misr El-Fatah), founded 14-4-1990.

Arab Democratic Nasserist Party or Nasserist Party, founded 19-4-1992.

The Social Justice Party, founded 6-6-1993.

National Conciliation Party (Hizb al-Wifak), founded 2-3-2000.

Egypt 2000 Party, founded 7-4-2001.

Liberal parties:

Liberal Party (Hizb al-Ahrar), founded 7-7-1977.

New Wafd Party (Hizb al-Wafd-al-Gadid), founded 4-2-1978.

Egyptian Greens, founded 14-4-1990.

The Democratic Unionist Party (Hizb al-Itahadi al-Democrati), founded 14-4-1990.

The People's Democratic Party (PDP), founded 15-3-1992 - Currently frozen.

Democratic Generation Party (Hizb El-Geel al-Democrati), founded 9-2-2002.

Tomorrow Party (Hizb al-Ghad), founded 27-10-2004.

Constitutional Party (al-Hizb al-distouri), founded 24-11-2004.

Egypt Youth Party, founded 2-7-2005.

Democratic Peace Party, founded 2-7-2005.

Free republican Party, founded 4-7-2006.

Democratic Front Party (Hizb al-Gabha al-Democrati), founded 24-5-2007.

Right-wing parties

National Democratic Party ('Al'Hizb Al Watani Al Democrati'), founded 1-10-1978.

Solidarity Party (Hizb Al Takaful ), founded 5-2-1995.

Conservative Party, founded 12-3-2006.

Awaiting license

Dignity Party (Hizb al-Karama) - a Nasserist offshoot led by journalist and MP Hamdeen Sabahi. Isn't granted full-license yet.

Liberal Egyptian Party (el Hizb el Masri el Liberali), formerly Mother Egypt Party (Hizb Masr el-Omm) - a secular, Egyptian nationalist party.

Center Party (Hizb Al-Wasat)- a Muslim Brotherhood offshoot with moderate tendencies, led by Abul-Ela Madi.

Stability Of Government:

For several years, Egypt has gone through an acute political and social crisis expressed in the most various forms, from protests and street demonstrations to a worsened economic crisis. It got even to the political crisis manifested particularly at top levels of the pyramid represented by the country's leadership.
Especially during the last decade, the intensity of the manifestations of tension and political crisis was directly proportional to the strength of Gamal Mubarak’s propulsion campaign as head of the state. Gamal Mubarak is the son of the current President Hosni Mubarak and the process is called "hereditary transmission" or "hereditary republic" after the precedent offered by Syria, whose leadership was taken over by Bashar Al-Assad, or that could be taken at that time, by Seif Al-Islam, son of the Libyan leader.
At least in Egypt, the Constitution has been amended to prevent any serious estate ambitions that could turn into obstacles on the road to the supreme dignity of Gamal Mubarak. There are concerns and worries of the Egyptian political class and even of the ruling elite about the relatively rapid health deterioration of Hosni Mubarak. Aged 82, he had to be hospitalized in several European countries where he has undergone surgery. Taking into consideration the context, the role and the regional influence that Hosni Mubarak and, ipso facto – Egypt have in a rough period, and with quite confusing perspectives to unblock the Arab-Israeli peace process, it was natural that the country's leadership succession scenarios in case of biological or political disappearance of the current president were not to be missed.
In the following lines, we propose the development of forecasts – which we call scenarios – referring to possible developments during the forthcoming 15 months i.e. until November 2011 when presidential elections are scheduled for the nomination of the one who will lead Egypt in the period to come. I took into consideration the main elements, which will definitely influence the future presidential elections, and these are:
1. The project for a hereditary transmission of leadership presented as a combination of social alliance of government and personal desires and aspirations of President Hosni Mubarak and his family.
2. The electoral capacity of opposition movements and trends, more specifically of the forces represented by: Muhammad Baradei, former head of the International Atomic Energy Agency, representatives of civil society forces, formal opposition parties, other various groups and movements, the Muslim Brotherhood Movement.
3. The ambitions and aspirations of some of the high representatives of the military leadership.
4. The potential of the internal security apparatus.
5. The wishes and interests of U.S. and of some forces that can influence the state and society: businessmen and representatives of banking, intelligence services, etc.
If the Egyptian opposition imposes control over the vast majority of "street" voters and reaches a broad mobilization against the governing National Party, and against the hereditary transfer of power to Gamal Mubarak, we can expect a military intervention to stop all the succession projects that we have presented as scenarios. If, on the other hand, the opposition will remain a mere decorative presence with no significant influence and also under U.S. influence, one will be able to speak about a harmonization of positions supported by both power and opposition. It can also be considered the support for a National Party presidential candidate, whatever his name.
Egypt expects an inevitable change, and this should not be considered simply a matter of domestic nature. The way the post-Mubarak Egypt will know and agree to adapt in a normality of all Egyptians will determine whether it represents the factor of equilibrium that will influence political and military developments in the region, or it will be the element to bring additional tension and instability on the regional scene.

LEGAL SYSTEM:


Organization of the judiciary system:

The Egyptian Judicial System (or judicial branch) in Egypt, is an independent branch of the government which includes both secular and religious courts.

The Egyptian judicial system is based on Europeand primarily French legal concepts and methods. Under the several governments during the presidency of Hosni Mubarak, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect.          The legal code is derived largely from the Napoleonic Code. Marriage and personal status are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned. Thus, there are three forms of family law in Egypt: Islamic, Christian, and secular (based on the French family laws).

The judicial branch plays an important role in the political process in Egypt, as the branch is given the responsibility to monitor and run the country's parliamentary and presidential elections.

*The Court of Cassation, the only one in its category, was established in 1931 and based in Cairo. The Court of Cassation, the exclusive body atop the judicial hierarchy in Egypt, was designated with the purpose of creating a central tool to provide exclusive and uniform interpretation and application of law.

The jurisdiction of Court of Cassation basically includes consideration of challenges brought to it by either adversary or by the public prosecution.

It also includes examinating lawsuits related to judges' actions. In such a case, the court undertakes its role as a court of merit, rather than a court of law.

It also has the power to give rulings on requests of reparations for all violated verdicts. The court issues annual collections on approved judicial principles under the title “Rulings and Principles of The Court of Cassation”.

*Courts of Appeal, some which are called Higher Courts of Appeal, have the competence to consider rulings by the courts of first instance falling under its jurisdiction should these rulings be liable for appeal.

According to the Egyptian judiciary law, there are seven courts of appeal in Egypt; in Cairo, Alexandria, Tanta, Mansoura, Ismailia, Beni Swaif and Assuit.

*Court of First Instance

These courts of first instance have the competence to consider lawsuits filed before them as may fall under their jurisdictions. Their rulings are liable to appeal.

*Courts of limited jurisdiction

These courts have the competence to issue rulings on lawsuits of limited importance, falling under their geographical and term jurisdictions.

These rulings are liable to appel.

*Family Court

The Family Court (FC) was established in 2004, motivated by the need to differentiate between family fags and litigations and other disputes. It is intended to provide a specialized judiciary tool that would take cognizance of such cases in an atmosphere totally different from that of other lawsuits.

This aims to secure psychological peace for the children who may be involved, especially in such cases of tutelage, divorce, alimony, custody, etc.

The ultimate objective of this court is to hammer out an amicable settlement for family problems through specialized guidance bureaus.

Egyptian State Lawsuits Authority

*Public Prosecution

The public prosecution acts as public attorney before criminal courts with the right to file criminal actions. It was given the right by the Egyptian legislation to initiate action even if plaintiff has relinquished his right to do so.

*Administrative judiciary

This judiciary has the jurisdiction to decide on administrative disputes to which any administrative body is involved.

Since the enactment of law No. 112 of 1988 creating the State Council (Maglis ad-Dawla), Egypt has adopted a dual system of judiciary, i.e. the ordinary and administrative judiciary.

Islamic Law:

Legal System/History	Based on Islamic law and civil law (particularly French codes). Egypt attained independence from Ottoman Empire in matters of legal and judicial administration in 1874. Judicial reform began in 1875, leading to establishment of mukhtalatat (mixed) and ahli (national) courts. As Egypt increasingly came under foreign influence, legal system began resembling European systems to a greater extent. From 1920 to early 1950s, Egyptian legislature enacted several laws effecting important changes to family law. Controversial emergency decree issued by Sadat in 1979 introduced extensive changes to the two Egyptian Laws of Personal Status of 1920 and 1929. In May 1985, the 1979 Law was struck down by High Constitutional Court on technical grounds and declared ultra vires the Egyptian Constitution. Several changes made by 1979 Law were reintroduced and some new provisions added in Personal Status (Amendment) Law (no. 100/1985) enacted a few months after verdict. The Personal Status Law was again amended on 27th January 2000.
School(s) of Fiqh	Hanafi majority; significant Coptic Christian minority.
Constitutional Status of Islam(ic Law)	Constitution adopted 11th September 1971; Article 2 affirms Islam as state religion; amended in 1980 to add recognition of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence as the principal source of legislation.
Court System	Sharia courts integrated into national court system in 1956. Family law applied within National Courts by judges trained in sharia(separate family chambers for Copts). Appeals go through regular courts, to Court of Appeals and then to Court of Cassation.
Relevant Legislation	Law concerning Maintenance and some provisions in Personal Status (no. 25/1920) Law on Marriage Age (no. 56/1923) Decree concerning provisions in Personal Status (no. 25/1929) Law of Bequest (no. 71/1946) Civil Code (no. 131/1948) Personal Status (Amendment) Law (no. 100/1985), subsequently amended on 27 January 2000 also: Law of Inheritance (no. 77/1943) Sharia Courts and Community Tribunals (Abolition) Law 1955 Law modifying some rulings on maintenance (no. 62/1976)
Notable Features	Marriage Age: 18 for males and 16 for females (lunar calendar) Marriage Guardianship: governed by Civil Code; wali cannot prevent ward from marrying for reasons of status, amount of dower, etc.; judge may authorise marriage if wali refuses Marriage Registration: obligatory registration a legal requirement though it does not determine validity of marriage, thus judges shall not hear cases in which parties have not reached minimum marriage age or in which matrimony is denied and parties have no documentation Polygamy: notification of existing and intended wives required; existing wife can petition for divorce if she sustains such harm as makes cohabitation as husband and wife impossible (up to one year from date of her knowledge of the polygamous marriage) Obedience/Maintenance: deviation from classical Hanafi law relating to arrears of maintenance which are deemed a debt against husband from the date he fails to maintain until debt is paid or excused; claims for maintenance not to be heard for past period exceeding one year from date of claim; wifes leaving the home for lawful work not deemed disobedience so long as she does not abuse this right or it is not contrary to interests of her family, with proviso that husband has not asked her to refrain from exercising right to work Talaq: talaq expressed indirectly, while intoxicated or under coercion, or conditionally with coercive intent is ineffective; repudiation to which a number is added verbally or by gesture effective only as single revocable talaq (except third of three); written and notarised certification of talaq must be obtained within 30 days of repudiation and notary must forward copy of certificate to wife; certain financial effects of talaq suspended on her knowledge thereof if husband is found to have concealed it Judicial Divorce: wife may obtain judicial divorce on following grounds: serious or incurable defect of the husband (unless woman married in full knowledge of such defect or defect occurred after the contract and she implicitly/explicitly accepted it), harm making cohabitation as husband and wife impossible, if harm is proved and reconciliation efforts fail, material or moral harm if husband marries polygamously and such harm makes cohabitation as husband and wife impossible (up to one year from date of her knowledge of the polygamous union), husbands absence for a year or more without reasonable justification; husbands imprisonment for three years or more, after one year of sentence has passed, non-payment of maintenance; and discord if reconciliation efforts fail, with financial settlement proportionate to allocation of blame as determined by arbitrators; wife may also obtain a divorce on the grounds of incompatibility, but will not lose all financial claims against her husband; a divorce requested by wife on the grounds of incompatibility must be granted within six months Post-Divorce Maintenance/Financial Arrangements: divorce repudiated by husband without cause or consent on her part entitled to compensation (muta al-talaq) of at least two years maintenance (no maximum stipulated); maintenance claims for iddanot to be heard after one year from date of divorce; divorcing husband required to provide independent accommodation for former wife having custody of their minor children Child Custody and Guardianship: divorced mothers custody ends at 10 years for boys and 12 years for girls; judge may extend custody to 15 years for boys or until marriage for girls if wards interests so require Succession: 1946 Law introduced obligatory bequest (wasiyya wajiba) for descendants of predeceased sons (how low soever) and daughters, as well legalised bequests to heirs, and extended doctrine of radd (return) to allow spouse relict to share in residue of estate
Notable Cases	Case no. 29/1980 Badari Court of Summary Justice for Guardianship of the Person (Mahkama Juziyya lil-Wilaya alal-Nafs) precipitated 1985 decision of High Constitutional Court (al-Mahkama al-Dusturiyya al-Ulya) that implementing resolution of Law no. 44/1979 (Jihans Law) was unconstitutional on technical grounds as initial emergency decree by which Sadat implemented the legislation was issued in absence of true state of emergency, and so was invalid. Hisba suit against Professor Abu Zayd to divorce him from his wife on basis of his alleged apostasy, ultimately upheld by Supreme Court; led to passage of Law no. 3/1996 preventing claims by private individuals on basis of hisba.
Law/Case Reporting System	Law reporting in al-Jarida al-Rasmiyya. Case reports of Court of Cassation (mahkama al-naqd) decisions in civil and criminal cases published since 1949; six volumes issued annually. Practitioners and judges indexes of cases compiled less frequently. Supreme Constitutional Court decisions published since 1979. Practitioners collections of principles in court rulings on sharia and personal status matters also compiled.
International Conventions (with Relevant Reservations)	ICCPR & ICESCR  signature 1967, ratification 1982 with general declaration relating to the provisions of the sharia not conflicting with the text annexed to the instrument CEDAW  signature 1980, ratification 1981 with reservations to Arts. 9(2), 16, 29(2) & 2 CRC  signature & ratification 1990 with reservations regarding any provisions relating to adoption, particularly Arts. 20 & 21

Participation in patents, trademarks, and other conventions:

PATENTS The Intellectual Property Law allows inventors to obtain patent protection for twenty years from the date of application in Egypt.  

The patent protection for utility designs is for seven renewable years starting from the date of application in Egypt, and the patent protection for schematic designs of integrated circuits is ten years starting from the date of application in Egypt or the date of first commercial exploitation thereof in Egypt or abroad, whichever date is prior to the other.

 It is the patent holder's exclusive right to fully exploit the invention.  It is also his obligation to fully exploit it, otherwise the patent holder may be subjected to compulsory licensing in favor of a third party for failure to do so, as detailed in this Law. Undisclosed secret data and information also enjoy protection in accordance with this Law.TRADEMARKS The Intellectual Property Law provides owners of trademarks with a protection period of ten years subject to renewals for similar periods. The owner of the trademark is the one who effects the registration and uses the trademark for the five following years, unless it is established that a third party had a priority of using it, and the person who had preceded the one in whose name the trademark is registered has the right to challenge and declare null and void the registration during those five years. However, the trademark may be challenged and declared null and void without a period restriction if it is coupled with ill will. This Law provides that the owner of a famous trademark in Egypt and worldwide has the right to enjoy the protection prescribed in the Law even if the trademark is not registered in Egypt.  INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS AND DRAWINGS  Industrial designs and drawings enjoy protection for ten years starting from the date of application for registration in Egypt, and the protection is renewable for five years.   COPYRIGHT

Copyright protection includes literary, technical and scientific works such as architectural designs, speeches, musical works, theatrical pieces, maps, photographic and cinematographic works, works for broadcast on television or radio, videotapes, and computer software.

 The protection extends to fifty years after the death of the author.  If the author is a legal entity then the protection begins on the date of first publication.   The protection for applied arts works is for twenty five years starting from the date of their publication or the date they are made available to the public for the first time whichever is the latter and broadcasting authorities enjoy the exploitation protection for twenty years starting from the date of first transmission of the programs. BOTANICAL PRODUCTS Botanical biological and non-biological products derived in Egypt and abroad –which are new, distinctive, homogeneous, durable and that have a distinctive appellation- enjoy the protection of the Intellectual Property Law once they are recorded in the special register for botanical products subject of protection. The duration of the protection is twenty-five years for trees and grapevines and twenty years for other agricultural products, and the general rule is that the protection runs from the date it is granted.


SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS:


Clubs and Organizations:

Alexandria British Community Group (ABCG)

All Nations Women's Group

American Women of Alexandria

Archaeological Society of Alexandria

British Sub Aqua Club

Cairo 41 Club

Cairo Hash House Harriers

Cairo Petroleum Wives

Cairo Players

Cairo Rugby Club

Cairo Toastmasters Club

Centro de Portugal

Community Services Association (CSA)

Delta Hash House Harriers

Friends of the Environment

German Women of Alexandria

Hungarian Women's Club

International Ladies' Club of Alexandria (ILCA)

La Leche League

Latin American Circle in Egypt (LACE)

Les Amis de la Musique et des Arts

Maadi Community Choir

Maadi Community Players

Old Victorians

RC Modellers

Republicans Abroad Egypt

Rotary and Innerwheel Heliopolis

Rotary Club

Swiss Club

Technical Diving International

The British Community Association

The British Community Association Heliopolis

The British Community Association Maadi

The Cairo Art Guild

The Cairo Choral Society

The Cairo Cyclists

The Cairo Divers club

The Egypt Exploration Society (EES)

The Heliopolis Community Activities Association (HCAA)

The Maadi Women's Guild

The Middle East Wives

The Tree Lover's Association

The Women's Association of Cairo

Tourist Friends Association

Women's International Arts and Craft Group of Alexandria


Social Classes:

 -Pharaoh 

Pharaoh had the highest social status in ancient Egypt and was the head of the country.He was the ruler and religious leader. Ancient Egyptians believed that he was the incarnation of god and could communicate with god. He also had Absolute Power over his subjects. 
-Upper Class 
Scribes,officers,prime minister,priests and nobles belonged to this class.They were the few people who could read and write.They had wealth, servants and land. Prime minister helped Pharaoh to run the kingdom. 
-Middle Class 
Fishermen, farmers, craftsmen and merchants belonged to this class.Most of the commoners didn't know to read and write. Fishermen fished along the Mediterranean sea while merchants traded different goods, craftsmen would make home-made goods for living. Many of them joined the army to raise their social status 
-Peasants 
They had to build temples, pyramids and do a lot of labor work.They belonged to the lowest class of the social status.    

Race :

The human catastrophe of early modern slavery juxtaposed west and central Africans with northwest Europeans in the Americas. Out of this genocidal experience, race has become a dominant category for uniting and dividing people in modernity. Within the race debate, ancient Egypt has become a terrain contested by three mutually exclusive views:

• modern Egyptian: the ancient Egyptians are the same group of people as the modern Egyptians
• Afrocentric: the ancient Egyptians were black Africans, displaced by later movements of peoples, for example the Macedonian, Roman and Arab conquests
• Eurocentric: the ancient Egyptians are ancestral to modern Europe

  

Business Practices in Egypt:

Officially called the Arab Republic of Egypt, it is considered as one of the most progressive countries in the Middle East.

Not only it is steeped in history and culture, being a cradle of one of the world’s greatest civilizations, it is also considered a gateway country of Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Because of this, business practices here may resemble either European or Arab practices, or probably anything in between.

Do not wear traditional clothing – Foreigners in Egypt are expected to abide by local standards of modesty. However, wearing traditional clothes may be viewed as offensive to some Egyptians.

Most of the body should be covered – Despite the intense heat during the day, both men and women must always remain conservative in clothing. Even men should never wear shorts and even t-shirts in public.

Meanwhile, women are expected to wear clothes with high neckline and sleeves that is at least to the elbows. Hemlines should at least be well below the knee. Achieve a "baggy" fit on your clothes, therefore pants or pant suits are not recommended.

Women should bring a scarf at all times – It is a good idea to keep a scarf handy, especially if entering a Mosque.

Jacket-and-tie combo is a must – Even if they have a low company stature, men are usually required to wear a jacket and tie during business meetings.

Personal space depends on gender – Space relationships among members of the same sex will be much closer than North Americans and Europeans are comfortable with. Egyptians would tend to stand close and moving away may be a sign of aloofness.

Meanwhile, men and women stand farther apart from each other than what foreigners are accustomed to.

Arabic is read differently – The Arabic language is read from right to left. Books and magazines start at what would be the last page in the United States. Printed literature should have an impressive back cover, even if it is printed in English.

Expect some language barrier – Almost all Egyptians speak Arabic, while many international business people would speak in English, French, or both.

Work is from Saturday to Wednesday – As you can see, Saturdays and Sundays are not considered weekends in Egypt. Friday is a holy day among Muslims and no business would be conducted.

Some government offices are closed on Thursdays and Fridays, while others close on Fridays and Saturdays. Also, most business offices close at 2:00 p.m. during working days.

Holidays are complex – The Hijri calendar follows the cycles of the moon, which is why its holidays usually don’t fall on the same day as the previous year. It is best to inquire or learn about upcoming Islamic holidays before making plans.

Avoid wearing visible jewelry – Keep your accessories to a minimum. Avoid wearing jewelry that is easily noticed, particularly around the neck.

Avoid sitting with your legs crossed – Showing the sole of your shoe is considered an siult to another person. Sit with both feet flat on th ground at all times.

It is common to smoke in public – When smoking in a public place, be considerate to others present and offer your cigarettes.

Always let someone walk ahead of you – This is considered a sign of respect towards others.

Take note of hand gestures – Never use your left hand in gesturing. The left hand is considered unclean among Arabs. Doing the thumb’s up sign or tapping your two index fingers together is considered vulgar and inappropriate.

RELIGION AND AESTHETICS:


Much of our knowledge about ancient Egyptian culture is based on elaborate worship rituals related to death and the afterlife. Egyptians were devoted to their gods and to their pharaohs who were gods on earth, as demonstrated by their willingness to build the pyramids for the safe passage of their leaders into the afterlife.
Understanding the development of Egyptian society and their theological system requires a basic knowledge of the geography of the area. The Nile River Valley and Nile Delta, circa 4000-5000 BCE, was comprised of about 12,000 square miles of arable land. The villages and towns of ancient Egypt were found up and down the length of the Nile with most of the population living below the First Cataract (located approximately at present day Aswan).
The Egyptians were accomplished farmers. They knew the Nile would flood each year and bring new life and abundant grain. The Nile's flooding was predictable and left rich new deposits of silt for new crops, making irrigation easy to plan. A basin irrigation system allowed the flood waters to flow gently into each field, cleansing and renewing the earth each year.
The virtual isolation of the Nile Valley allowed Egyptian civilization to develop unthreatened by its neighbors. The Mediterranean Sea lay to the north, vast deserts were found to the east and west, and dense jungle lay to the south. An invader would have to be quite determined to brave the elements that protected the Nile Valley civilization.
Since Egyptian civilization was a product, in many ways, of the natural forces that surrounded its people, the people looked to nature to explain the unexplainable. Egyptian gods were depicted as wise, caring, predictable, and forgiving, just as the Nile was predictable and life sustaining.
The creation myth of the ancient Egyptians began with a vast waste of water called Nu, similar to the creation story in Genesis where the Spirit of God "hovered over the waters." Nu gave birth to the sun god, who was called Kheyera at dawn, Ra at noon, and Tum at dusk. Just as the Greek god Zeus was greater than his father Chronos, Ra became greater than Nu. Ra created his wife Tefnut, who made the rain. Together, they created Seb, God of the Earth, and Nat, the Goddess of the Sky. Seb and Nat were the parents of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nepthys.
Ra is given credit for creating the heavens and earth and all creatures. According to Egyptian legend, Ra had only to think and a creature would take form. Ra is also said to have created man from his eye, and Ra became the first king on earth. The idea that the god Ra was the first king is the seed for the belief that a Pharaoh was both King and god.
After Ra gave up his kingship to ride across the sky, Osiris became king with Isis as his queen. Osiris is credited with teaching men to be civilized and to farm, and for teaching mankind to worship the gods and to build temples. Isis was also a wise and good ruler who taught men how to raise grain. 



Religion was very important to the Ancient Egyptians. Their religion was strongly influenced by tradition, which caused them to resist change. "Egyptians did not question the beliefs which had been handed down to them; they did not desire change in their society. Their main aim throughout their history was to emulate the conditions which they believed had existed at the dawn of creation" (Pg. 81, David, 1988). One of the very strong traditions was that of Divine Kingship. Divine Kingship is the belief that the Pharaoh was not only the King (political ruler) but also a god. The Pharaoh was associated with Horus, son of Re the sun god. Later it was believed that at death he became Osiris, or an Osiris, and would help the Egyptians in their afterlife.
     Due to their beliefs, the Pharaoh held an immense amount of power. In addition, the priests in Ancient Egypt were also very powerful. When things were going well, the people believed the priest and pharaoh were doing their jobs well; when things in the country were not going well, the people believed the pharaoh and the priest were to blame.
     The religion of Ancient Egypt was a polytheistic (many gods) religion with one short period of monotheism (one god). Their religion hosted about 700 different gods and goddesses. In addition, it was not uncommon for deities to be combined to form a new deity.
     One of the more famous aspects of the Egyptian religious beliefs was their ideas of the afterlife. They believed the physical body had to be preserved to allow a place for their spirit to dwell in the afterlife. Because of this, mummification was performed to preserve the body. In addition, large pyramids were constructed as tombs for the pharaohs in the Old Kingdom. Later, rock cut tombs were used to bury the pharaohs.




Art and Architecture :

Architecture

The great architectural achievements of the past are built of stone. Stone quarries supplied the large blocks of granite, limestone, and sandstone that were used for building temples and tombs. Architects planned carefully as building was done without mortar, so the stones had to fit precisely together. Only pillars were used to sustain short stone supports. At the temple of Karnak, a ramp of adobe brick can be seen leading to the top of the temple wall. Such ramps were used to allow workmen to carry stones to the top of structure and allow artists to decorate the tops of walls and pillars. Pillars were built in the same way. As height was added, the ground was raised. When the top of the pillar was completed, the artists would decorate from the top down, removing ramp sand as they went along.

As soon as a pharaoh was named, construction on his tomb was begun. Tomb building continued throughout his life and stopped only on the day on which he died. As a result, some tombs are very large and finely decorated, while other tombs, like that of King Tutankhamun, are small because he ruled as a pharaoh for such a short time.

The architecture was based upon perpendicular structures and inclined planes since there was no structural assistance except the strength and balance of the structure itself. For this reason, the square and the plumb-line were very important tools.           

The Pyramids

One of the most notable and lasting achievements of the Ancient Egyptians are their pyramids. The size, design, and structure of the pyramids reveal the skill of these ancient builders. The pyramids were great monuments and tombs for the kings. The Egyptians believed that a king's soul continued to guide affairs of the kingdom even after his death. To ensure that they would continue to enjoy the blessings of the gods, they preserved the pharaoh's body through the mummification process. They built the pyramids to protect the pharaoh's body, the pyramid was a symbol of hope, because it would ensure the pharaoh's union with the gods.

The largest pyramid in existence is the Great Pyramid built by King Cheops (Khufu) at Giza. The Great Pyramid measures 481 feet high, by 775 feet long at each of its four bases. Other notable pyramids include the Step Pyramid built for King Zoser, and the pyramid built for King Huni, that was a transition between the step pyramid and the smooth sided pyramid we know today.

Art

The art of the Egyptians reflects every aspect of their lives. Depicted in tomb and temple drawings are scenes of everyday living, models of people and animals, glass figures and containers, and jewelry made from gold and semi-precious stones.

The wall and pillar drawings are perhaps the best known. In these drawings, it can be seen that people are going about the everyday business of baking, fishing, boating, marketing, and meeting together in family groups. Such drawings were also used to help the deceased to live forever by giving them all of the instructions they would need as they met the gods on their way to eternal life. The good deeds were recorded and the art that surrounded their mummified body was to help their spiritual self in solving the problems related to life after death. Pictures of food, clothing, servants, and slaves could be used by the deceased just as the real things were used by the person when living.

A variety of perspectives is often combined in Egyptian art; however, the side view is the most often seen. The artists used bright colors of blue and red, orange and white to develop pictures that tell of the life of the deceased individual. The artist would first sketch a design on a piece of pottery, and if the design was satisfactory, it would be sketched on the wall with charcoal. Colors could then be used to fill in the completed picture. Paints were made from naturally occurring minerals and artificially prepared mineral substances. Paint brushes were sticks with fibrous wood with frayed ends. Walls were covered with mud plaster, then with lime plaster. By the time of Ramses II, artists were able to shade colors to achieve a layered effect. Wall paintings were then protected by a thin layer of varnish (the composition of which is still not known).

Sculptors were important artists in Egypt. Statues were made of kings, queens, scribes, animals, and gods and goddesses. Frequently, human and godlike attributes and symbols were combined. The work of the artist was seen in other media as well. Alabaster, a white and translucent stone, was often used for making vessels and containers. Pottery was made of ceramics and clay. Pottery glazed with minerals was used to make beads, amulets, pendants, and other jewelry. A vivid blue glaze was very popular during the reign of Ramses II. Craftsmen made glass for inlayed designs and for some containers. Workers were able to make articles out of lead, gold, silver, and copper. Such metals were used to make pins, tweezers, razors, axes, knives, spears, sculptures, and jewelry. The stability of the government during the reign of Ramses II allowed the skills of the artist and architect to flourish.

Literature

Religion was often the subject of Egyptian literature. Prayers and hymns were written in praise of the gods. The most important book was "The Book of the Dead." This book contained over 200 prayers and magic formulas that taught the Egyptians how to reach a happy afterlife. The Egyptians also wrote adventure stories, fairy tales, myths, love stories, poems, proverbs and quotes.

LIVING CONDITIONS:

The rapidly growing population of Egypt is a challenge to government officials responsible for meeting the country's housing needs. Population size, a shortage of skilled laborers, and a shortage of construction materials have resulted in a shortage of affordable housing. The most painful result of this shortage can be seen in mausoleums (small buildings for burial above ground) of cemeteries of Cairo, Egypt's capital city. More than five hundred thousand poor people have set up homes in the mausoleums. The cemeteries are so full of people that they are now called "The City of the Dead." One-fifth of all Egyptians live in the four hundred slums that surround Cairo.

Most Egyptians live in crowded apartment buildings in very densely populated communities. Some people have built semilegal housing of wood, cardboard, and metal on the flat rooftops of apartment buildings. There is little space for single-family houses, but they can be found in a few areas.

Food:

Most of the population consumes bread, rice, beans, fruits, and vegetables every day. Those who can afford to also eat red meat, poultry, and fish. The typical Egyptian breakfast consists of ful mudammas (fava bean dip) with pita bread, hard-boiled or scrambled eggs, and a cup of hot tea with boiled milk.

Common desserts include kunafa, a baked pastry made of layers of shredded wheat dough and nuts and covered with syrup. Another is baqlawa (baklava), a baked pastry made of layers of filo dough (thin, flaky dough) and nuts and covered with syrup. A third is basbusa, a baked cake made of wheat flour and soaked in syrup.

Common drinks include hot tea with mint, Turkish coffee, irk sus ( a licorice-root drink), and fresh fruit juice—including Carrot juice and sugarcane juice—all of which are squeezed fresh by street vendors.

Because they are mostly Muslim, Egyptians do not consume pork or drink alcoholic beverages. Alcohol is served in expensive restaurants and hotels.

Typical festive food:

Approximately 90 percent of Egyptians are Muslims, which means they practice the religion of Islam. The most important time of the year for Muslims is a monthlong holiday called Ramadan. During the month of Ramadan (the ninth month on the Islamic calendar, usually November or December), Muslims fast (do not eat or drink) from sunrise to sunset, and think about people around the world who do not have enough food. Muslim families will often come together to prepare hearty meals, including a variety of sweets, after sunset. Muslims end Ramadan with a three-day celebration called Eid al-Fitr.

Eid al-Adha, a three-day long "great feast," is another important holiday for Muslims. In recognition of the Bible story of Abraham's sacrifice of his son, Jacob, families will sacrifice (kill) a sheep or a lamb. The animal is slaughtered and cooked whole on a spit over an open fire, and some of the meat is usually given to poorer families. These animals are also sacrificed on other important occasions, such as births, deaths, or marriages.

A bakery displays loaves of bread on racks.

Cory Langley

Throughout the year, several moulids may take place. A moulid is a day (or as long as a week) celebrating the birthday of a local saint or holy person. Several events take place during this time. Food stands decorating the town's streets are usually set up near the holy person's tomb. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, celebrates at least three moulids every year. The largest moulid, Moulid el Nabit, commemorates the birthday of Muhammad and takes place in Cairo in early August.

Just under 10 percent of Egypt's population are Christians, whose most important holiday is Easter, falling in either March or April. It is common for families to come together to share a hearty meal, much as Christians worldwide do. Egyptian Christians observe the Orthodox calendar, which places Christmas on January 7 each year.

HOUSING:

Prior to 1952, most Egyptians lived in mud huts. Postrevolutionary governments, however, have actively concerned themselves with housing. In order to encourage rural housing activities on nonfertile soil, "extension areas" have been allocated for villages. Efforts have been made to provide low-rent housing in towns; the units were constructed in cooperation with the Reconstruction and Popular Dwellings Co., in which the government held a share. Assisted by the state, which grants long-term and low-interest loans, cooperative societies also engage in housing construction. The state affords facilities for cooperatives to acquire land from the religious foundations.
Despite these efforts, Egypt's housing shortage remains acute, with about one million units needed in urban areas. Housing construction was a major priority of development plans in the 1980s, but it was considered likely that it would take many years for Egypt's housing deficit to be met. The greatest shortage is in low-cost housing.

Types of Houses:

Throughout the history of the world, no region has been more influenced by the natural attributes of the land than Egypt. The rhythm of the Nile reflected the rhythm of life in Egypt for thousands of years. In ancient Egypt, the Nile was their main source for survival and for the great triumph of their civilization. The Nile was not only the source of water,  but the ancient Egyptians had religious beliefs that focused on the Nile. They relied on the gods to control the annual ebb and flow of the river. They constructed their homes from the soil of the Nile, and built them in proximity to the river. When describing the life of an ancient Egyptians, it is virtually impossible not to consider this river as part of their way of life.  Many of the major settlements in Egypt, such as Cairo and Giza, were located right along the corridor of the river Nile.

Houses of the Ancient Egyptians were built out of bricks made from mud. The mud was collected in leather buckets and taken to the building site. Here workers added straw and pebbles to the mud to strengthen the bricks. This mixture was then poured into wooden brick frames or molds. The bricks were left out in the sun to dry and to cure. These dwellings deteriorated after time, and new ones were built right on top of the crumbled material, creating hills called tells. Only buildings that were meant to last forever were made of stone. After the house was built it was covered with plaster, very similar to the technique used in adobe housing in the American Southwest. Inside of the house, the plaster was often painted with either geometric patterns or scenes from nature. The interior of the houses were cool as the small windows let in only a little light.

Egyptian houses were typically built in along the Nile.  They had to be built high in order to avoid annual flooding from the Nile. The living areas were often on the top floors and many activities were done on the roof of the houses. High sand dunes were erected as barriers from flood water. There were two types of homes typical in Egypt, the home of the worker's and the town house. The average dimension of the workers house was approximately 4m by 20m. A typical workers home ranged from two to four rooms on the ground level, an enclosed yard, a kitchen at the back of the house and two underground cellars for storage. Niches in the walls held religious objects. The roof was also used as living space and storage.   There was little furniture save beds and small chests for keeping clothes. There was no running water and sometimes a single well served an entire town. Egyptian villagers spent most of their time out of doors. They often slept, cooked, and ate atop their houses' flat roofs.

Entering from the street, there were steps into the entrance hall. The entrance hall had a cupboard bed, the use of it is uncertain. The next room had a distinctive wooden pillar in the middle supporting the roof. This was the main room of the house, and it was used as a shrine or a reception area. The master of the house had his masters chair sitting atop a raised platform.  There were several stools and one or two tables for the guests, and the room was lit by a high small window located above the roof of the first room. This room was decorated with holy images along the walls, and a table with offerings in front of a false door. Underneath the masters raised platform (dais), a trap door leads down a flight of stairs into the cellar, where valuables could be kept.

Behind the central room was a hall with a door on the side leading to a bedroom. The bedroom and the roof were used interchangeably as resting areas. At the end of the hall was the kitchen with an open roof. In the kitchen was a door leading to another cellar that served as a pantry. Different heights in the roofs allowed for more private windows in the house.

The homes of the wealthy and noble classes were large. The typical town house of ancient Egypt had many features similar to the workers houses. Town houses were typically two to three stories high. They were typically more spacious and more comfortable than the workers houses. They made high walls that supported multiple-story buildings by reinforcing them with beams. In multi-story homes, stones were often used in the first floor for greater strength at the base. The first level of the house was usually the working area where business was conducted, and servants would remain. The second and third floors are more adorned and were the living areas of the house with similar features to the workers home.

The food was prepared on the roof and brought down to the rooms by the servants. Cooking was done outside because it was considered dangerous to do it in an enclosed area inside the house. Cooling was also a factor to keeping cooking outside. Egyptians always tried to keep their houses cool from the prevalent warm temperatures. Windows were constructed close to the ceilings in order to maintain cool temperatures indoors.  Also mats were often spread on the floors for cooling.  Proper sanitation was a luxury that only the wealthier townspeople could have. They would have toilets carved of limestone, and the sewage would be disposed of into pits in the streets. They were usually two to three stories high. The ground floor was often reserved for businesses, while the upper floors provided living space for the family. Many people slept on the flat roof during the summer to keep cool. Cooking was also often done on the roof.

The ancient Egyptians, even the wealthy ones, had a very limited assortment of furniture. A low, square stool, the corners of which flared upwards and on top was placed a leather seat or cushion, was the most common type of furnishing. Chairs were rare and they only belonged to the very wealthy. Small tables were made of wood or wicker and had three to four legs. Beds were made of a woven mat placed on wooden framework standing on animal-shaped legs. At one end was a footboard and at the other was a headrest made a curved neckpiece set on top of a short pillar on an oblong base. Lamp stands held lamps of simple bowls of pottery containing oil and a wick. Chests were used to store domestic possessions such as linens, clothing, jewelry, and make-up.

The garden had a formal pool and rows of trees and shrubs. The well was conveniently located near the garden and the cattle yard. It consisted of a wide hole in which a flight of steps lead down to a platform from which water was drawn up using a rope and bucket. Foundations were generally non existent. Virgin soil above groundwater level was baked rock hard by the sun and needed just some leveling. In order to build on top of collapsed dwellings, the clay rubble was well watered and let to set and harden.

Wealthy Egyptian people had spacious estates with comfortable houses. The houses had high ceilings with pillars, barred windows, tiled floors, painted walls, and stair cases leading up to the flat roofs where one could overlook the estate. There would be pools and gardens, servant's quarters, wells, granaries, stables, and a small shrine for worship. The wealthy lived in the countryside or on the outskirts of a town.

There are two examples of excavated villages, one at El-Amarna, and the other at Deir el-Medinah. The workers village at El-Amarna was laid out along straight narrow streets, within a boundary wall. The houses were small, barrack-like dwellings, where animals lived as well as people. Many houses had keyhole-shaped hearths and jars sunk into the floor. There was no well in the village and the water had to be brought from some distance away. Life must have been far more pleasant in the village of Deir el-Medina, home to the workers of the Theban royal tombs. There was a single street with ten houses on either side. The houses in this village had three large rooms, a yard and a kitchen, underground cellars for storage, and niches in the walls for statues of household gods.

CLOTHING:

Egyptian clothing styles did not change much throughout ancient times. Clothes were usually made of linens ranging from coarse to fine texture. During the Old and Middle kingdoms, men usually wore a short skirt called a kilt. Women wore a straight fitting dress held up by straps. The wealthy men wore pleated kilts, and the older men wore a longer kilt. When doing hard work, men wore a loin cloth, and women wore a short skirt. Children usually ran around nude during the summer months, while in the winter, wraps and cloaks were worn. Noblewomen sometimes wore beaded dresses.During the New Kingdom, noblemen would sometimes wear a long robe over his kilt, while the women wore long pleated dresses with a shawl. Some kings and queens wore decorative ceremonial clothing with feathers and sequins. Most people went barefoot, but wore sandals on special occasions. The king wore very elaborately decorated sandals, and sometimes decorative gloves on his hands. Clothing styles were chosen for comfort in the hot, dry climate of Egypt.

Egypt had a range of traditional costumes. The farmers (fellahin) basically wear gallibayas. In the cities the upper classes adopted the clothes of their conquerors - Ottoman Turks from 1500s, and later European from 1798. To the south the Nubians have their own distinctive costume and across the desert the Bedouin also have a separate style of clothing.

Man in gallibaya Woman in sebleh Fellahin - front with hatta (1997) Bedouin - Sinai (1937)

Egypt - Women

Fruitseller (c1980)

Peasant women would wear a gallebaya outdoors but in the city gallibaya tended to be worn only indoors. For public wear a woman would wear a wide woman's dress called a tob sebleh.Wide trousers were worn as underclothing (tshalvar or shintijan) gathered below knee and falling to ankles.
The woman's kaftan was called a yelek. This was lined, with the neck open to breast and buttoned or laced along side seams for shaping. It had high side slit over trousers. Girded with shawl. Women would wear a shirt under the yelek, and a djubbeh or binnish over it.
In Alexandria and Cairo, women would also wear the melaya luf - a large rectangular wrap worn for modesty, warmth, and used to carry things.
City women often worn a bur`a - a long rectangular face veil either of white cotton or open weave - and a headscarf (sometimes over a skullcap - taqiyah). Another headcovering was the mandil (headscarf) sometimes decorated with pom poms. Among the fellahin a bag like hattah was sometimes worn.

Almehs, Cairo (c1870) Milaya lef Fellah (1997) Man in tarboosh, woman in bur`a (c1920)

Egypt - Men

Cairo market (1970)

The basic traditional Egyptian garment for men is a long shirt (gallibaya). Tilke also distinguishes one with a looser fit under the arms (eri) and very wide version of the gallibaya called a kamis which was worn by fellahin. While working fellahin would hitch up the skirt of the gallebaya and wrap it around their thighs.Trousers (sserual) were sometimes worn under the gallebaya.
Over the gallebaya a kaftan (often striped) was worn. A kaftan is a full length garment like a coat with long wide sleeves open in front and often bound by a fabric belt (hizan). Over the kaftan was a binish - a cloth overcoat with wide sleeves - often slit below usually dark grey and unlined. Alternatively, a djubbeh which had was more complex cut than the binish could be worn especially by Turks during the Ottoman occupation. The `ulama also wore a jubbah over stripped kaftan. The jubbah was a long, wide sleeved gown which reached to feet and was buttoned half way down.

Tarbushes, shishas (1926)

However, from the 1800s European dress replaced traditional dress among the Ottoman court and this was taken up by members of the elite. Therefore, senior civil servants and members of the ruling intelligentsia could be seen in Egypt in European style clothing.However European headwear was not adopted. Instead Sultan Mahmud Khan II decreed that checheya heargear would be worn. In Egypt this was called "tarboosh". Later Mohammed Ali was to incorporate the tarboosh as part of the military uniform. This was abolished as headwear after the 1952 revolution. For further information on the layers worn see Male Headewear
What was not worn by Egyptians was the Arab kufeya and `igal - except possibly among some Bedouin.

Tarbush maker (1926) Cairo 1938 Skullcaps Turban wound over tarbush Urban men in market Gallibaya (c1980)

Nubia

Nubian man 1967

1966

Sudan

Nubia straddles the south of Egypt and the North of the Sudan. After the building of the Aswan dam many Nubians were relocated in Aswan. Nubians belong to five main tribes - two of which (Kanuz and Fadija) are in Egypt. The Kanuz people are the northernmost.The Kanuz women wear dresses formed by horizontal lengths of fabric each of which is longer than the one above giving a dress with almost a flounce at the bottom. For special occasions - such as weddings a semi-transparent layer is added over the dress. Fadija women wear a wrapped garment a little like a sari.Men wear trousers, shirts, vests and turbans.




RECREATIONAL, SPORTS AND OTHER LEISURE ACTIVITIES:

Children’s Activities

 There are endless choices of fun activities, including the magical pyramids, the tombs of the mummies and travelling on the Nile.

Cairo Tower
Resembling the Space Needle in Seattle, the Cairo Tower is famous for its revolving restaurant. A crowded lift is used to get to the top of the tower. The Nile, parts of eastern Cairo and the western desert can all be seen from either the observation deck or the revolving restaurant. Children may enjoy the ‘Pharonic Personal Analysis’, imitation papyrus with Egyptian hieroglyphics and a personality analysis in both Arabic and Egypt.

Citadel Fortress
The crumbling fortress of Citadel is a sight not to be missed.  Its high walls and beautiful courtyard will impress even the most knowledgeable and well-travelled of visitors. The Mohammed Ali Mosque stands within the walls and boasts extravagant ornaments such as a giant chandelier. The well-kept courtyard displays a clock in its centre, which Mohammed traded with the obelisk from Luxor. This clock has never worked.

Egyptian Museum
Not just for kids, the Egyptian Museum is one of Cairo’s main attractions. Excessive amounts of gold can be found in the Tutankhamun collection, as well as rare pieces of Egyptian jewellery. More than a dozen mummies are exhibited in the museum, with a unique twist of being unwrapped so visitors can view their faces. The museum will no doubt leave your child excited and desperate to learn more of Egypt and its mummies.

Qanatar
A day trip to Qanatar is ideal for families. Just an hour and a half south of Cairo, the island of Qanatar has several small amusement parks equipped with Ferris Wheels and bumper cars. This island in the middle of the Nile is also ideal for having a picnic. Stunning Victorian stone bridges can be found throughout.

Sports

Diving
Popular among divers, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea Coast boast shipwreck ruins and dense marine life. Coral, small fish, large turtles, nurse sharks and Napoleon wrasse are examples of just some species in the area. Sharm el-Sheikh and Ras Muhammad are the main dive centres on the Sinai Peninsular. The famous WWII wreck, SS Thistlegorm can be found just off Sharm el-Sheikh, while the Straits of Tirian are home to beautiful offshore reefs. Full training is available and it is possible to enjoy the diving opportunities, regardless of ability. During November and December the water is at its clearest and in February and March, planktons swarming the area attract stunning manta rays.

Visit this website for further information about Diving in Red Sea.

Donkey rides
Starting in the west bank of Gerizra, a donkey ride can be taken above the Valley of the Kings. The ride takes visitors through sugar cane fields, along the ridge over Deir El Bahri, into the Valley of the Kings and back down to the temple of Hatshepsut.

Nile Cruises
Feluccas (sail boats) and motor launches can be rented by the hour for a cruise along the Nile. Motor launches tend to be very comfortable and fully equipped with tables and cushions. Children are allowed to pilot the boat in some areas, such as the sandy banks of Luxor. Tea is included and lunch can be arranged. A pleasant trip on a felucca can be taken to the Banana Islands during a glorious sunset. Banana palms cover the island which ok stunning but are also a tasty treat. The felucca is an exceptional way to travel allowing visitors to fully experience their surroundings while enjoying the peace and quiet.

HEALTH CARE:

All types of medical care are available in Egypt and healthcare in Egypt generally enjoys a good reputation. Modern hospitals and clinics are commonplace throughout the country, particularly in Cairo, and these can either be state run or privately owned hospitals.

Many doctors in Egypt are Western-trained and speak English. They generally have a high standard of medical knowledge. In fact students from many Arab countries and Africa come to study medicine at universities in Egypt. Medical facilities in Cairo, Alexandria, and Sharm El Sheikh are considered to be perfectly adequate for routine problems, but emergency services can sometimes be limited.

For an ambulance in Egypt, phone 123.

We strongly advise anyone thinking of investing in property in Egypt to take out adequate private medical insurance for your stay in Egypt. Most doctors and hospitals will expect payment in cash, regardless of whether you have travel health insurance, so make sure you arrive with cash on you. Serious medical problems will require air evacuation to a country with more state-of-the-art medical facilities.

The Minister of Health recently announced that the Egyptian government plans to establish 50 new state hospitals in Egypt, using both local and foreign private sector financing. This project is scheduled for completion prior to the implementation of the new public health insurance scheme in 2010.                

LANGUAGES SPOKEN :

Official Launguage:

The official language of Egypt is the Standard Arabic and is used in most written media. Egyptian Arabic is the commonly spoken language (especially in Cairo), and is occasionally written. English, French, and German are also widely spoken and used in business and educated circles. 

Arabic Language:

Arabic came to Egypt in the 7th century, and Egyptian Arabic has become the modern spoken language of the Egyptians. Of the many varieties of Arabic, Egyptian Arabic is the most widely understood first dialect in the Middle East-North Africa, probably due to the influence of Egyptian cinema throughout the Arabic-speaking world.

A Bedouin Arab minority speaks a variety of Bedouin Arabic mostly in the Sinai Peninsula. Sudanese Arabic is also spoken by the Sudanese minority.

10,000 people speak English.   

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS:

Population:

82,999,393 2009

Growth Rate:

Population growth rate: 1.997% (2010 est.)

        

Birthrate:

Birth rate: 25.02 births/1,000 population (2010 est.)

Year	Birth rate	Rank	Percent Change	Date of Information
2003	24.36	85		2003 est.
2004	23.32	83	-4.27 %	2004 est.
2005	23.32	84	0.00 %	2005 est.
2006	22.94	84	-1.63 %	2006 est.
2007	22.53	88	-1.79 %	2007 est.
2008	22.12	88	-1.82 %	2008 est.
2009	21.7	88	-1.90 %	2009 est.
2010	25.02	64	15.30 %	2010 est.

Distribution of population:

Egypt is one of the most populated countries not only in the African continent but also in the Middle East and in the Arab world.

 According to the 2006 census conducted by government's statistics agency, the population of Egypt has sprung up to 72.6 million with a growth rate of 2.0 percent each year in the past decade.

In the year 1996 and 1986, the growth rate had been 2.1 and 2.8 respectively thus suggesting that the current growth rate has diminished. There was a huge population shift during the period of 1960s and 1970s when there was an influx of migrants from the rural areas to the cities.

Majority of the population in Egypt is concentrated on the fertile banks of river Nile, especially in Alexandria and Cairo, within the Delta and the Suez Canal. Thus there is unequal distribution of population in the various parts of the country. Cairo, the capital of Egypt has the highest population density (2136.1 person per sq km against 63.7 person per sq km).

The results of the past five censuses have shown that in spite of the decreasing fertility rates, there has been a continual rise in the population of Egypt. Over the past decade, the population of Egypt has expanded by 15 million and it is estimated to reach 138 million within the next fifty years. Thus it is feared that if such population explosion takes place in the coming years, then all agrarian land within the Nile valley will diminish between 2070-2100.

The biggest ethnic group in Egypt are the Egyptians, comprising the bulk of the population. Other minor ethnic groups include the Bedouin Arab clans inhabiting the Sinai Peninsula and the eastern deserts, the Berber-speaking Siwis, the ancient communities of the Nubians and Bejas and a group of Dom tribes. Apart from this, Egypt is also home to a large number of asylum seekers, Sudanese and Palestinian refugees.


Economic Statistics and Activity:

In north eastern Egypt, the Nile Delta is where most Egyptian economic activity takes place. In the last 30 years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy it inherited from President Gamal Abdel Nasser.

During the 1990s, a series of International Monetary Fund arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf War coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance. The pace of structural reforms, including fiscal, monetary policies, privatization and new business legislations, helped Egypt to move towards a more market-oriented economy and, since the turn of the new millennium, prompted increased foreign investment.

The reform program is still a work in progress and the government will need to continue its aggressive pursuit of reforms in order to sustain the spike in investment and growth and begin to improve economic conditions for the broader population. Egypt's export sectors—particularly gold and natural gas—have bright prospects.

GDP:

GDP - real growth rate: 4.7% (2009 est.)
7.2% (2008 est.)
7.1% (2007 est.)

Year	GDP - real growth rate	Rank	Percent Change	Date of Information
2003	1.70 %	143		2002 est.
2004	3.10 %	102	82.35 %	2003 est.
2005	4.50 %	95	45.16 %	2004 est.
2006	4.90 %	98	8.89 %	2005 est.
2007	6.80 %	55	38.78 %	2006 est.
2008	7.10 %	48	4.41 %	2007 est.
2009	7.20 %	31	1.41 %	2008 est.
2010	4.70 %	32	-34.72 %	2009 est.

Payscale and Income:

Job National Salary Data (?) EGP 0 EGP 50K EGP 100K EGP 150K Accountant EGP 17,662 Senior Accountant EGP 40,424 Sr. Software Engineer / Developer / Programmer EGP 57,551 Information Technology (IT) Manager EGP 90,000 Human Resources (HR) Manager EGP 114,000 Project Manager, Information Technology (IT) EGP 117,108 Mechanical Engineer EGP 44,919

Mineral and Resources:


Natural Resources:




The greatest natural resource in Ancient Egypt was the Nile River. The river provided fish, transportation, and an annual flood that fertilized the land for growing good crops. Egypt also had other items of natural resources in rocks and metals.
Different types of rocks and minerals were quarried in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians mined large blocks of rock by drilling holes in a line in a rock’s surface. The holes were filled with wedges of wood. Wetting the wooden wedges caused them to expand, and after a period of time, the rock split along the line of the drilled holes.
The Egyptians mined from various areas in Egypt. White limestone came from quarries near Memphis, quartzite from Gebel el-Ahmar, and sandstone from Gebel es-Silsila. Alabaster was quarried out of the eastern desert. Granite quarries were found around Aswan.
Copper was the main metal used in Ancient Egypt . Copper comes naturally mixed with other minerals in an ore form. The ore had to be heated to remove the copper from the other elements. The Egyptians used a heating process called smelting to remove any impurities from the copper. To do this, they placed the ore with charcoal into a pit located in a windy area. They lit the charcoal and the wind stoked the fire to nearly the thousand degrees centigrade needed to separate the copper from the ore. In later times, the Egyptians used a bellow system to get the needed oxygen to stoke the fire to the necessary temperature.
Flint was another important stone for Ancient Egyptians. It was used in making sickles for harvesting crops and in making weapons. Steatite, another type of stone, was used in making scarabs. Scarabs were inexpensive charms which held a religious meaning to the early Egyptians.
Egypt lacked good trees for wood due to the dryness of the climate. Cedar wood had to be imported from Lebanon to meet the Egyptians’ needs.
Flax was another natural resource that Egypt developed. Flax grew well in the fertile Nile Valley. It was pulled out by the roots and then dried. Seeds were removed, and the core of the plant was placed in water for a week or more. Then they beat and separated it into parts that were spun into linen cloth.
Another naturally grown crop in Egypt was papyrus. It was made into writing material, a predecessor to paper. The papyrus plant grew in several feet of water. It was pulled out, and the stem was cut into strips. The strips were overlaid in vertical and horizontal layers and put under pressure by pounding it together. The sap of the plant acted like a glue after it dried, holding the strips together in a white loose-textured paper.


Surface Transportation:

Egypt's road and rail network was developed primarily to transport population and was most extensive in the densely populated areas near the Nile River (Nahr an Nil) and in the Nile Delta. Areas along the Mediterranean coast were generally served by a few paved roads or rail lines, but large areas of the Western Desert, Sinai Peninsula (Sinai), and the mountains in the east were inaccessible except by air (see fig. 5). The Nile and a system of canals in the Delta were the traditional means of transporting goods, although freight was increasingly carried by truck or rail. The entire system was unable to keep up with rapid population growth, particularly in the large urban areas, and expansion and modernization of all forms of transportation were under way.

In early 1990, Egypt had more than 49,000 kilometers of roads, of which about 15,000 kilometers were paved, 2,500 kilometers were gravel, and the remaining 31,500 kilometers were earthen. The highway system was concentrated in the Nile Valley north of Aswan and throughout the Delta; paved roads also extended along the Mediterranean coast from the Libyan border in the west to the border with Israel. In the east, a surfaced road ran south from Suez along the Red Sea, and another connected areas along the southern coast of Sinai from Suez to the Israeli town of Elat. A well maintained route circled through several western oases and tied into the main Nile corridor of highways at Cairo in the north and Asyut in the south. Large areas of the Western Desert, the mountainous areas near the Red Sea, and the interior of the Sinai Peninsula remained without any permanent-surface roads, however.

The state-owned Egyptian Railways had more than 4,800 kilometers of track running through the populated areas of the Nile Valley and the coastal regions. Most of the track was 1.435-meter standard gauge, although 347 kilometers were 0.750-meter narrow gauge. Portions of the main route connecting Luxor with Cairo and Alexandria were double tracked and a commuter line linking Cairo with the suburb of Hulwan was electrified. Built primarily to transport people, the passenger service along the Nile was heavily used.

Less heavily traveled routes provided connections to outlying areas. A coastal route west from Alexandria to the Libyan border was being upgraded to allow for increased passenger travel. Tracks along the Mediterranean coast of Sinai, destroyed during the June 1967 War, had been repaired, and service was restored between Al Qantarah on the Suez Canal and the Israeli railroad system in the Gaza Strip. New ferry boats allowed passengers at Aswan, the southern terminus of the Egyptian Railways, to connect with the Sudanese system. A new line intended to export phosphates was under construction from Al Kharijah in the Western Desert to the port of Bur Safajah.

The southern leg of the forty-two-kilometer Cairo Metro, the first subway system in Africa or the Middle East, opened in 1987. This line, built with the cooperation of France, linked Hulwan in the south with three main downtown stations, named Sadat, Nasser, and Mubarak. In 1989 the northeast line opened, extending from downtown to the suburbs. The city planned to build an east-west route across the Nile to Giza (Al Jizah). The government hoped that the subway construction would relieve the extremely jammed streets, buses, streetcars, and trains.

Although Egypt had sixty-six airfields with paved runways, only the airports at Cairo and Alexandria handled international traffic. EgyptAir, the principal government airline, maintained an extensive international network and had domestic flights from Cairo and Alexandria to Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel (Abu Sunbul), and Al Ghardaqah on the Red Sea. In 1983 EgyptAir carried 1.6 million passengers. A smaller, state-owned airline, Air Sinai, provided service from Cairo to points in the Sinai Peninsula. Zas Passenger Service, the newest airline and the only one that was privately owned, had daily flights from Cairo to Aswan, Luxor, Al Ghardaqah, and points in Sinai.

Alexandria was Egypt's principal port and in the early 1990s was capable of handling 13 million metric tons of cargo yearly. Egypt's two other main ports, Port Said (Bur Said) and Suez, reopened in 1975, after an eight-year hiatus following the June 1967 War. Realizing the importance of shipping to the economy, the government embarked on an ambitious plan in the late 1980s to build new ports and increase capacity at existing facilities, including constructing a facility capable of handling up to 20 million metric tons of cargo just west of Alexandria. Bur Safajah on the Red Sea was being developed to handle phosphate exports, and the first stage of a new port at the mouth of the Nile's eastern Damietta (Damyat) tributary opened in 1986.

Egypt had about 3,500 kilometers of inland waterways. The Nile constituted about half of this system, and the rest was canals. Several canals in the Delta accommodated ocean-going vessels, and a canal from the Nile just north of Cairo to the Suez Canal at Ismailia (Al Ismailiyah) permitted ships to pass from the Nile to the Red Sea without entering the Mediterranean Sea. Extensive boat and ferry service on Lake Nasser moved cargo and passengers between Aswan and Sudan.

The Suez Canal was Egypt's most important waterway and one of the world's strategic links, being the shortest maritime route between Europe and the Middle East, South Asia, and the Orient. Serious proposals for a canal between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea had been made as early as the fifteenth century by the Venetians, and Napoleon ordered the first survey of the region to assess a canal's feasibility in 1799. After several subsequent studies in the early nineteenth century, construction began in 1859. After ten years of construction and numerous unforeseen difficulties, the canal finally opened in 1869 (see Suez Canal , this ch.).

The canal extends 160 kilometers from Port Said on the Mediterranean to a point just south of Suez on the Red Sea. It can handle ships with up to sixteen meters draught; transit times through the length of the canal averaged fifteen hours. Passing occurs in convoys with large passing bays every twenty-five kilometers to accommodate traffic from opposite directions. Traffic patterns have changed considerably over the last century, reflecting different global priorities: passenger transit has dropped while the movement of goods, especially petroleum, has increased dramatically. It was estimated that before the 1967 ArabIsraeli War, 15 percent of the world's total sea traffic passed through the canal.       

Modes of Transport:

Getting around Egypt is quite easy and comfortable, since the modes of transportation in this country facilitate the travelers to move around the entire nation without facing any difficulty. Usually, flights, railways and bus services are considered to be the major means of conveyance in Egypt.

There are loads of transport modes to move around the country. Luxury as well as budget bus services are available. Generally, the luxurious buses are more comfortable and run faster. However, bus can be a very comfortable and a relatively cheaper mode of transport. Before taking a bus ride, tickets have to be bought at bus stations. Tickets can also be available in the bus itself.

Besides that, train is also a good transport option while getting around the territory of Egypt. Egypt provides both ordinary trains and air-conditioned express trains. However, the fact should be kept in mind that that train does not go to the Sinai and the major beach destinations of Sharm el Sheikh and Hurghada.

Apart from this, the other major means of transportation that are required for getting around Egypt include domestic flight services, rented cars, Nile Cruise and of course the Feluccas (lateen-sailed boats).

Communications :

Communication Fields in Egypt

Press:

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.

Mail:

Egypt Post is the government-owned body that provide postal services. Mail post is never considered as a reliable communication mean in Egypt.

Radio:

See also Egyptian Radio and Television Union & List of FM radio stations in Egypt

Radio in Egypt is almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four[citation needed] FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.

Starting 2003, Nile Radio Production a private company was given license to operate two radio stations, Nile FM and Nogoom FM. Nile FM broadcasts in English and Nogoom FM broadcasts in Arabic. Both stations mostly broadcast mainly to the Greater Cairo region. In the early 2009, Radio Masr was launched, broadcasting popular Egyptian songs, news & other programs.

Television:

Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ERTU) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.

Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.

Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.

In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.

Landline Telephony:

Currently, there is a single company in charge of Landline Telephony, Telecom Egypt which is also government-controlled. The government is planning to start the process for licensing a second national operator for voice and transport services by 2008, with a view to this company starting operations in 2009.

Cellular Communications:

Currently, there are three companies which offer cellular communication service: Mobinil, Vodafone Egypt and Etisalat Egypt. These companies are providing services surpacing voice communication such as 3G and 3.75G services.

Internet:

Main article: Internet in Egypt

The Internet companies market is dealt to two: infrastructure providers and service providers. There are 5 infrastructure companies:-

1-Raya

2-NileOnline

3-TEData

4-EGYNet

5-LINKdotNET

There are 8 major Service Provider companies which sll their services to smaller ISPs. The highest avialble speed through ADSL technologies was upgraded to 8MB in download in February 2008 and then to 24MB later that year. The Egyptian ISP market is fully liberalized and highly competitive, at least in Cairo and Alexandria, with over 220 ISPs offering a range of services, including dedicated, dial-up, pre-paid and premium services. With the introduction of ADSL for homes and businesses, more subscribers are introduced into the market. It is expected that by the end of 2010 high-speed Internet access will be available across the entire country.

Orascom, one of the shareholders in the leading cellular operator MobiNil, is also the biggest player in the Internet service provision market and owns 75 per cent of Egypt’s largest ISP, LINKdotNET. The tie-up with the mobile operator is significant in that WAP services were introduced in May for a trial period, making Egypt one of the first countries in Africa to have introduced WAP.

NileOnline and Egynet has been recently sold to Etisalat, increasing Etisalat access into the broadband market. with this acquisition all class I tier ISPs mentioned above are owned by the major telecomunication companies operating in the country.

Raya is owned by vodafone Egypt, Nileonline and Egynet are now owned by Etisalat, TEdata is owned and operated by the oldest telecom company in the region telecom Egypt and link.net is owned by Orascom telecom.

Wireless Internet:

Egypt is following closely the efforts to standardize WiMax technologies as they permit simpler and faster access to Internet services, especially as WiMax receivers are integrated into PC processors. The government is still also holding discussions with relevant stakeholders to determine the best policy framework for introducing WiMax into the market through existing or new operators.

Working Conditions:

Since the 1970s, the Egyptian labor force has been growing at the rapid rate of 500,000 (2.7 percent) per year. In 2000, Egypt's labor force stood at 19 million. The official unemployment rate for 1999 was 7.4 percent. However, Egypt's unemployment rate is believed to be higher than the official figures. Independent estimates put unemployment at about 10 percent. Almost one-third to one-half of the labor force is believed to be under-employed.

Egypt's labor force generally lacks secondary education and proper job training, which explains why much of the younger workforce cannot expect high pay. Despite higher rates of school enrollment since the 1960s, illiteracy is still high, at 35 percent for men and 58 percent for women. The educational sector remains overburdened and understaffed, and shortages in technical skills are viewed as a major impediment to business operations.

Unemployment remains especially high among women and workers under 20 years of age. The government is hard-pressed to meet its commitment to create jobs for the thousands of university graduates entering the workforce every year, a major challenge since the 1980s. The average waiting period for a job in the public sector is estimated to be 11 years.

Egypt has a long tradition of trade unions. Workers' unions have existed in Egypt since the British mandate and, although repressed by the British government, workers routinely organized strikes to protest working conditions. By 2001, the workers' movement was less effective. Workers have the right to join trade unions, but are not required to do so by law. Some 27 percent of union members are state employees. There are 23 general industrial unions and some 1,855 local trade unions; all of them are required by law to be members of the Egyptian Trade Union Federation (ETUF). Although semi-independent, the ETUF maintains close ties with the ruling National Democratic Party and has traditionally avoided confrontations with the government. The close connection between the ETUF and the ruling party has meant less protection for state-sector employees, but the federation has been far more successful in bargaining on behalf of private sector employees.

The Egyptian government supports workers' rights promoted by the International Labor Organization (ILO) and has set conditions governing industrial and human relations and established minimum-wage standards. The 6-day, 42-hour working week is the standard. The government-mandated minimum wage in the public sector is approximately US$33 a month, although the actual income a worker takes home is triple that amount, due to a complex system of added benefits and bonuses. The minimum-wage law is also observed in the private sector. In addition, the government provides social security benefits that include a retirement pension and compensation for on-the-job injuries. Wages have increased steadily over the last few years and are expected to increase again, since the 2001-02 budget has allocated US$10 billion for public sector workers' salaries and bonuses. However, it is only recently that the rate of increase in public wages has exceeded the rate of inflation.

Egypt has had a history of child labor problems. Poverty has driven many children younger than the minimum working age of 14, to join the labor force. Official estimates indicate that children under the age of 14 make up 1.5 percent of the total labor force. The number, however, is believed to be much higher, and it remains difficult to gauge the real extent of the child labor problem. The majority of working children (78 percent) work in agriculture. Children are also employed in craft shops, as domestic servants, and in the construction industry. The problem of child labor is worsened by poor enforcement of the law and the inadequacy of the education system.

The current labor laws make it difficult for employers to dismiss workers. Despite the protection offered by unions and the labor laws, however, working conditions are not ideal. Workers do not have the right to strike, and although strikes occur, they are considered illegal. The abundance of available labor has meant that workers are generally underpaid and are usually forced to work in overcrowded and often unsafe conditions. Government health and safety standards are rarely enforced, resulting in many workers seeking extra income through a second job or work in the informal sector , perhaps as street vendors. Thousands of Egyptians also seek employment opportunities in other countries, mainly in the Arab Gulf region. According to the latest census by the Egyptian government, 1.9 million Egyptians live and work abroad, and their remittances are a major source of foreign currency.

Foreign Investment:

Egypt has declared that foreign private capital is both desired and welcome and that foreign capital investment has a place in the country's economic development. Investors in approved enterprises are assured of facilities for transfer of profits, withdrawal of capital, and employment of necessary foreign personnel. In 1974, Egypt sought specifically to encourage capital investments from multinational corporations in the West, so new projects financed with foreign capital were protected, capital was freed for reexport within five years of its investment in Egypt, andinvestment profits earned within Egypt were allowed transfer abroad. In 1991, all foreign exchange transfer restrictions were lifted.

The main laws governing foreign investment are the Capital Market Law of 1992, as amended to increase stock market regulation in 1998; the Investment Incentives and Guarantees Law of 1997, establishing the regime for free trade zones (FTZs); and a series of laws in 1998 setting conditions for private (including foreign) participation in public banks, insurance, maritime transport, electricity distribution, and telecommunications.

Depending on their size, location, and other characteristics, new projects financed with foreign capital are exempt from taxation for five to ten years; in addition, payments of interest on foreign loans are not taxable and investors are exempt from certain customs duties. There is one basic condition for approval: the project must be on an approved list in the fields of industrialization, mining, energy, tourism, transportation, reclamation and cultivation of barren land, or animal husbandry. Applications must be made to the General Authority for Arab Investment and the Free Zones, which consists of the minister of state for Arab and foreign economic cooperation and seven other members. The bidding process for contracts has been made more transparent, but Egyptian bids have preference up to 15% above foreign bids. Since 1991, Egypt has liberalized its foreign trade by reducing the number of items on its list of banned imports. In 1990, the list covered 37% of all imports; in 1992, 11%; and in 1999, only apparel was banned. The use of other non-tariff barriers on imports and export restrictions has also been reduced. Bureaucratic barriers, however, still hamper investment. In 2002, there were seven operative FTZs, and two being developed. FTZs offer exemption from import duties, sales taxes, and taxes and fees on capital goods. A 1% tax is charged on warehoused goods and on exports from assembly plants. Investments are often located in the free zones of Alexandria, Cairo (Nasr City), Port Sa'id, Ismailia, Damietta, Safaga, Sohag, and Suez. In 2003, to deal with the chronic shortage in foreign exchange, a law was passed requiring that 75% of foreign exchange earnings be converted into local currency.

From 1992, foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow was about $1 billion a year. As of 2001, FDI stock totaled at least $10 billion. Inflows of FDI peaked in 1999 at nearly $3 billion, but then fell to $1.2 billion in 2000, and then to only $510 million in 2001. In terms of portfolio investment, the Egyptian stock market declined nearly 60% in 2001, and did not recover in 2002.

Imports and Exports : (from and to USA)

Egyptian Exports to U.S.

Of the $2.4 billion in American imports from Egypt in 2006, the following product categories had the highest values.

1. Natural gas …US$828.7 million (34.6% of Egyptian to U.S. exports, up 10.2% from 2005)
2. Cotton household furnishings & clothing … $576.6 million (24.1%, up 35.8%)
3. Semi-finished iron & steel mill products … $344.6 million (14.4%, up 259.3%)
4. Other petroleum products … $131.9 million (5.5%, down 41.2%)
5. Textile floor coverings including rugs … $106.9 million (4.5%, up 10.9%)
6. Non-cotton household furnishings & clothing … $95.6 million (4%, up 55.1%)
7. Aluminum … $34.6 million (1.4%, up 17.8%)
8. Items returned to U.S. then reimported … $33.6 million (1.4%, down 55.9%)
9. Stone, sand, cement & lime … $28.7 million (1.2%, down 33.1%)
10. Fertilizers, pesticides & insecticides … $19.6 million (0.8%, down 13.2).

Fastest-Growing Egyptian Exports to U.S.

Below are American imports from Egypt in 2006 with the highest percentage sales increases from 2005.

1. Synthetic rubbers, wood, cork, gums & resins … US$10.6 million (up 531,250% from 2005)
2. Feedstuff & foodgrains … $10 million (up 5,197%)
3. Semi-finished iron & steel mill products … $344.6 million (up 259.3%)
4. Unmanufactured steelmaking & ferroalloying materials … $2.3 million (up 205%)
5. Other finished items (e.g. shingles, molding, wallboard) … $2.5 million (up 140%).

Egyptian Imports from U.S.

Of the $4.1 billion in American exports to Egypt in 2006, the following product categories had the highest values.

Fastest-Growing Egyptian Imports from U.S.

1. Corn … US$476.1 million (11.6% of Egyptian from U.S. imports, up 21.5% from 2005)
2. Civilian aircraft … $304.7 million (7.4%, up 1,506.7%)
3. Drilling & oilfield equipment … $296 million (7.2%, up 41%)
4. Miscellaneous … $253 million (6.2%, up 134.1%)
5. Telecommunications equipment … $240.7 million (5.9%, up 238.4%)
6. Wheat … $235.3 million (5.7%, up 23.7%)
7. Military vehicles (e.g. armored cars & trucks) … $203.2 million (5%, down 19%)
8. Tanks, artillery, missiles, rockets, guns & ammunition … $147.1 million (3.6%, up 4.8%)
9. Military parts … $125.8 million (3.1%, down 14.9%)
10. Steelmaking materials … $98.7 million (2.4%, up 87.4%).

Below are American exports to Egypt in 2006 with the highest percentage sales increases from 2005.

1. Vessels … US$17.5 million (up 87,370% from 2005)
2. Civilian aircraft … $304.7 million (up 1,507%)
3. Civilian aircraft engines … $27.4 million (up 702%)
4. Dairy products & eggs … $37 million (up 320%)
5. Coal … $70.2 million (up 271%).

Sources

This analysis is based on latest statistics from the US Census Bureau - Foreign Trade Statistics and CIA World Factbook as of the date of article publication.

Balance or Trade:

Egypt's balance of payments swung into surplus in the year to end-June from a deficit a year earlier, the central bank said on Monday.

The surplus for 2009/10 was $3.36 billion versus a deficit of $3.38 billion in 2008/09.

The country's current account deficit narrowed to $4.32 billion in the year to end-June from $4.42 billion a year earlier. The trade balance narrowed to $25.12 billion from $25.17 billion.

Net foreign direct investment during the year fell to $6.76 billion from $8.11 billion. This included $3.6 billion in investments in the petroleum sector, down from $5.4 billion in the previous year.

Net portfolio investment jumped to $7.88 billion from a net outflow of $9.21 billion in 2008/09. This included $5 billion in foreign investments in Egyptian Treasury bills.

Money in Egypt:

Credit cards:

American Express, Diners Club, MasterCard and Visa are widely accepted in all but the smallest hotels and restaurants throughout the country, except in the Western oases.

Currency information:

Egyptian Pound (EGP; symbol E£) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of E£200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1, 50 piastres and 25 piastres. Coins are in denominations of 25, 20, 10 and 5 piastres.

British pounds sterling, Euros and the US Dollar are accepted everywhere although change may be given in Egyptian pounds.

Currency restrictions:

The import and export of local currency is limited to E£5,000. The import and export of foreign currency is limited to US$10,000 or equivalent.

Travellers cheques:

These are becoming less useful now that international ATMs are prevalent throughout the country. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take traveller's cheques in US Dollars, Euros or Pounds Sterling.

Private transfers from abroad, mainly remittances from Egyptian working overseas, rose to $9.51 billion $7.63 billion, the bank said.  

Custom Duties:

Customs duties in Egypt serve not merely for protection but also for revenue. Under-invoicing is common, prompting customs officials to add 10% to 30% of invoice value to calculate the true value. Imports are mostly unrestricted, except for apparel, in an effort to protect local apparel manufacturers. In 1998, following IMF and World Bank structural reforms, most customs tariffs ranged between 30% and 40%, down from 40% to 160% in 1994. Tariffs on food items ranged between 1% and 50% and textiles tariffs were increased from 40% to 54%. Some items are taxed much higher, however, such as alcoholic beverages, which hold tariffs of 600-3000%. Egypt assesses a 2% or 4% service fee on imports (depending on the customs duty assigned to the commodity) and a 5% to 25% sales tax is added to the final customs value of imports.

Free zones have been established in Alexandria, Cairo (Nasr City), Port Sa'id, Ismailia, Damietta, Safaga, Sohag, and Suez; these are exempt from customs duties.

Unemployment Rates:

Unemployment rate: 9.4% (2009 est.)
8.7% (2008 est.)

Year	Unemployment rate	Rank	Percent Change	Date of Information
2003	12.00 %	84		2001 est.
2004	9.90 %	98	-17.50 %	2003 est.
2005	10.90 %	102	10.10 %	2004 est.
2006	9.50 %	95	-12.84 %	2005 est.
2007	10.30 %	118	8.42 %	2006 est.
2008	9.10 %	114	-11.65 %	2007 est.
2009	8.40 %	114	-7.69 %	2008 est.
2010	9.40 %	110	11.90 %	2009 est.

Science and Technology: (Institute)

Founded in 1971, the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology in Cairo is the national body responsible for science and technology. Egypt also has 12 specialized learned societies in the fields of agriculture, medicine, science, and technology. The National Research Center, also in Cairo, carries out research in pure and applied sciences. The Ministry of Agriculture has 20 attached research institutes in Cairo and Giza. Twenty other institutes conduct research in medicine, science, and technology. In 1987–97, research and development expenditures totaled0.2% of GNP; 341 technicians and 459 scientists and engineers per million people engaged in research and development.

Located in Cairo are museums devoted to agriculture, geology, railways, and marine technology. In addition to polytechnic institutes in Cairo and Mansoura, Egypt in 1996 had 13 universities offering courses in basic and applied sciences. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 12% of college and university enrollments.

Retailing:

Retailing in Egypt

Euromonitor International's Retailing in Egypt examines whether recent high growth rates can be sustained in an economic downturn. Growth has been boosted by richer consumers spending more and some companies' decision to sell a wider range of non-food products. Rising sales have supported expansion into new markets, new store formats and moves into private label products. However, the economic downturn has set some of these strategies back, this analysis looks at whether grocery retailers will continue to enjoy similar rates of growth in the future.

Retail Prices and Inflation Reach High Levels in 2009:

Egyptian retail remained dynamic at the end of the review period despite the economic slowdown. Current value sales continued to rise in 2009, marginally below the high growth rate of the previous year and the average growth recorded over the review period. The price reductions which affected many imported goods, in particular grocery products, reached high levels. The stability of the US dollar, to which the Egyptian pound is pegged, also made selling prices almost stable during 2009.

Non-grocery Retailers Continue to Benefit from the Rising Shopping Centre Culture:

Non-grocery retailers continued to take the larger share of retailing in 2009, and remained more dynamic than grocery retailers that year. The category, which is largely represented by clothing and footwear specialist retailers, furniture and furnishings stores, durable goods retailers and other leisure and personal goods specialist retailers, benefited most from the booming real estate market and the development of the shopping centre culture. Growth was also aided by the rapid expansion plans of major retailers within the non-grocery segment, such as B-Tec chain of Olympic Group, Tawheed & El Nour and Oriental Weavers.

Mansour Manufacturing & Distribution Leads a Highly Fragmented Industry:

The retail industry is highly fragmented, largely dominated by single-outlet operations featured in the largest retailing formats including independent small grocers, food specialists and leisure and personal goods retailers. However, in line with the trend demonstrated over the latter years of the review period, 2009 saw gains achieved by giant retailers with chained outlets, leading to greater concentration process in the near future. Most dynamic retailers present within the top ten in 2009 included Mansour Manufacturing, Majid Al Futtaim Hypermarkets LLC, Raya Holding Co and Oriental Weavers Co. The strong gains these players experienced were a direct result of their aggressive expansion either in terms of number of outlets and selling spaces as well as their marketing support.

Store-based Retailers Dominate Retailing in Egypt:

Store-based retailing, which dominated retailing and was led by non-grocery outlets, recorded a higher value growth than non-store retailers in 2009. Non-store-based retailers became more numerous. However, people did not respond quickly to these new developments. Store-based retailing is larger in size and more dynamic in growth because stores are more involved in the daily lives of consumers, who like to go shopping, touching and inspecting their purchases. Moreover, store-based retailing works well with advertising as consumers can check new launches and new promotions by visiting outlets and gaining help from the staff. Finally, store-based retailers comprised large retail giants such as Carrefour, Bi-Tec, Omar Effendi and Oriental Weavers. This brought promising potential for growth.

Sales to Show Slower Growth Over the Forecast Period:

Despite the fact that retail prices are predicted to continue to grow over the forecast period, total sales are predicted to grow at a slower rate. Sales performance will be impacted by the slowing economy which will continue during the first two years of the forecast period. However, young Egyptians, who are gaining purchasing power by entering the workforce, will be a strong catalyst for growth and will encourage leading retailers and newcomers to expand aggressively within modern shopping formats with large selling spaces.

Media:

The press

The written press is very diverse in Egypt, with over 500 newspapers, journals and magazines available. However these are owned mostly or in some way by the government, the opposition or other political parties. Several journalists from private newspapers have been arrested and jailed for breaching laws that prohibit criticism of the President, state institutions and foreign leaders, or "putting out false news harming the reputation and interests of the country". However, unlike many of Egypt's regional counterparts, criticism of the government in general does take place, after amendments to existing press laws in 2006 which however still criminalise libel.

On one occasion, an Egyptian court revoked the publishing license for Ibdaa (Creativity), a small circulation magazine for publishing a "blasphemous" poem by Egypitan poet Hilmi Salem. Speaking on the ruling, the court said that "Freedom of the press... should be used responsibly and not touch on the basic foundations of Egyptian society, and family, religion and morals."

Television and radio

Main article: Egyptian television

There are a mix of state broadcasters (of which there are 2) and increasingly, private broadcasters. Figures from the CIA Factbook state over 98 television channels in 1995, and 57 AM and 14 FM radio channels in 1999. Pan-Arab channels such as Al-Jazeera are also very popular among viewers, especially for news, as private broadcasters are forbidden to broadcast their own news, instead only focusing on entertainment or music.[3] The Ministry of Information controls content in the state-owned broadcast media. Egypt was the first Arab nation to have its own satellite, Nilesat 101 which allows the Egyptian TV and film industry to supply much of the Arab-speaking world with shows from its Media Production City.The previously tight controls on state TV and radio gave way to even and fair coverage of all political parties involved in the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, a first for Egyptian media.[2] However in 2006 several journalists working for the Cairo branch of the Qatar-based Al-Jazeera were detained for investigating subjects such as police brutality and "harming the country's reputation".

Internet

The government has actively encouraged internet usage, quadrupling over the last few years with around 17 million regular users in 2010, around 21 percent of the population.[3] The internet is often used for political opposition, blogging and lively debate amongst the public and by the media which can publish stories that are prohibited in the print media.[4] The Egyptian government does not widely censor the internet, though the state-run Supreme Administritive Court allowed the Ministry of Information and Ministry of Communication to close down or block websites that are a "threat to national security". However, several people have been detained for insulting Islam, state institutions and President Hosni Mubarak during pro-democracy protests, as well as government officials in cases of abuse by the security services.

Freedoms

Following peace talk over the Middle East conflict at the Sharm al-Sheikh in Egypt, Al-Ahram was caught doctoring a photo that had showed US president Barack Obama in the front to show Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak walking in the lead on a red carpet ahead of Binyamin Netanyahu, Mahmoud Abbas and Jordan's King Abdullah II. Egyptian bloggers said the photo was "unprofessional" and said it an example of deception towards the people of Egyptl; others said the photo was an attempt to distract attention from Egypt's waning role in the. However, Osama Saraya, the editor-in chief, defended the decision saying "The expressionist photo is...a brief, live and true expression of the prominent stance of President Mubarak in the Palestinian issue, his unique role in leading it before Washington or any other."

MARKET AUDIT AND COMPETITIVE MARKET ANALYSIS:

Market:

How could a market in Egypt be responsible for the founding of the United States? Khan el-Khalili, once known as the Turkish bazaar during the Ottoman period, is now usually just called the 'Khan', and the names of it and the Muski market are often used interchangeably to mean either. Named for the great Caravansary, the market was built in 1382 by the Emir Djaharks el-Khalili in the heart of the Fatimid City. Together with the al-Muski market to the west, they comprise one of Cairo's most important shopping areas. But more than that, they represent the market tradition which established Cairo as a major center of trade, and at the Khan, one will still find foreign merchants. Perhaps, this vary market was involved in the spice monopoly controlled by the Mamluks, which encouraged the Europeans to search for new routes to the East and led Columbus, indirectly, to discover the Americas. During its early period, the market was also a center for subversive groups, often subject to raids before the Sultan Ghawri rebuilt much of the area in the early 16th century. Regardless, it was trade which caused Cairo's early wealth, even from the time of the Babylon fort which was often a settlement of traders.

Lots of colorful brass

This market is situated at one corner of a triangle of markets that go south to Bab Zuwayla and west to Azbakiyyah. The Khan is bordered on the south by al-Azhar Street and on the west by the Muski Market. One of the old original gates guards the entrance to the original courtyard which lies midway down Sikkit al-Badistan (street). On a narrow street leading off al-Badistand, one will find the El-Fishawi Cafe, or Cafe of Mirrors, which was once a meeting place for local artists, and is still frequented by the Nobel Award winning Naguib Mahfouz, one of Egypt's most well known authors. There are any number of canvas covered streets such as the one pictured to the right.

Egyptian buyers generally shop in the area north of al-Badistan and to the west, where prices may be lower. Better deals for gold and silver are to be found west of the Khan along the "street of the goldsellers", and further on one will find the Brass and Coppersmith Markets.

A young girl hawking her family's shop

Consumer Buying Habits:

With the population growing at almost 3% per year, retailers are struggling to keep up with the fast-paced changes in consumer demand. According to this year's Global Retail Index, Egypt has one of the fastest growing markets in the Middle East, ranking 13th in terms of most attractive retail markets across the globe, compared with 2009, where it ranked 15th.

Expected to open its first store in Dandy Mall at the end of this year, Marks and Spencer's will be among the first department store retailers to enter the Egyptian market, in addition to being the UK's largest clothing retailer. Egypt has a long standing relationship with the British retail market, with many Egyptian regularly travelling to Europe and the UK in particular to buy the latest fashion items. Once open, Marks and Spencer's strong British heritage, along with their department store concept, are expected to be the driving factors behind their success. There is no doubt that Egypt's growing sophisticated consumers are looking for more options.

Marks and Spencer will offer a range of clothing lines that suit the needs of the whole family including Ladies wear, Menswear, Kids wear, Lingerie, and Home ware. With 13 stores throughout the Middle East, the company has a wealth of experience and insight necessary to address the needs of Egyptian shoppers.

The study revealed that almost 40% of consumers relied on the advice of their families when choosing a store to purchase clothing from, 15% chose the store based on a brand name, while 10% focused on discounts, promotions or the convenient location of the store. As a result, 93% of survey respondents noted that majority of shopping takes place with friends or family, 75% have visited a store in the last six months with 46% having bought clothes or garments in the last month. More than 50% of consumers surveyed spent EGP 300 or more on their last purchase.

Interestingly, despite a perception that consumer purchases tend to be impulse driven, 97% of Egyptians surveyed indicated they carefully planned their purchases. They noted that they pay special attention to the collections offered by retailers and assess the quality of these products as well as value for money. In addition to this, most Egyptian consumers highlighted they were more likely to shop at stores that were well organized and had high quality store designs that met international standards. As one of the first department stores in Egypt, Marks and Spencer will offer a structured shopping experience where consumers can easily find the items they are looking for, creating a more enjoyable overall shopping experience.

In a market where department stores remain limited and relatively unknown, Marks and Spencer has a unique opportunity to bridge a gap in the Egyptian retail industry by providing local customers with their stylish, high quality, great value clothing and unrivalled reputation for quality, value, service, innovation and trust.

 PRELIMINARY MARKETING PLAN:

Marketing Courses in Egypt; Creating a Marketing Plan
The first thing you need to know about Marketing in Egypt is that it lies in knowing how to create a marketing plan.  If you do not have a clue about the basics of marketing, then you need to start looking up marketing courses in Egypt; looking for one that would orient you towards how to create a marketing plan. If you end up with a number of marketing courses in Egypt, and you do not know which one to pick; you can look for these four items and if any of the courses you are considering cover all four of them; that would be the course you need.

Always have a plan!

Marketing Courses in Egypt: A Marketing Plan Should Cover One Year:The first thing to look for in marketing courses in Egypt is the creation and development of a marketing plan. For most businesses, an effective marketing plan should be one that covers twelve months ahead from today. This happens to be the duration, because when it comes to markets; you are dealing with a dynamic factor. Given that competitors change in their strengths, their weaknesses, their number; customers’ needs vary with time; and your production capabilities increase as you grow; a one year marketing plan is the most suitable for your business. You need to focus more on marketing courses in Egypt that help you develop a functional effective marketing plan.
Marketing Courses in Egypt: Writing a Marketing Plan Should Take a Couple of Months:
If you have already attended any of the marketing courses in Egypt, you know by now that developing the plan is the “heavy lifting” of the whole process. Although eventually your marketing plan would be summed up in 6-12 pages, filling in these pages efficiently would take you some time. After all, when you are planning a year ahead for your business, you will have a lot to consider.  Your chosen course in between the marketing courses in Egypt should cover how to make the utmost of these two months to come up with the best suitable marketing plan for your upcoming year.
Marketing Courses in Egypt: Who Should See a Business’ Marketing Plan?Business owners tend to forget that they are not all by themselves when it comes to developing a marketing plan; they have a team to consider when creating this plan. The marketing courses in Egypt you are considering should include who are the individuals in your business that you need to include in the planning process and how to introduce the developed marketing plan to your business crew. Make sure that you take this point in consideration as it needs to be covered by your chosen marketing courses in Egypt. As your key people can provide realistic input on what is achievable and how your goals can be reached; and you cannot do a marketing plan without getting many people involved. So you are better off knowing how to successfully do so.
Marketing courses in Egypt: The Difference between Your Marketing Plan and Your Business Plan and the Relation between both:
Both your marketing plan and business plan revolve in the same universe; if your business plan is the sun, then your marketing plan is the Earth that revolves around it. Any of the marketing courses in Egypt that you are attending should emphasize this point; otherwise it would not be effective. Your business plan spells out what your business is about, and it provides the environment in which your marketing plan must flourish. Therefore, the two documents must be consistent. Make sure that any of the marketing courses you are attending are focusing on the relation between both your business and its marketing plan.

Online Marketing :


Online advertising is not yet a big business in Egypt and the Middle East, but Google is banking that it will be in the future.Google's presence in Egypt and the rest of the region is by and large focused on marketing for the world of online advertisement, a field where the internet giant expects exponential growth over the next few years.

Online advertisement remains scarce in Egypt. Wael Fakharany, Google's Egypt and North Africa business manager, says online ads don't exceed two percent of overall advertising expenditure, which reached about US$700 million in 2009. The remaining 98 percent is spent by advertisers on traditional media, like television, radio and print. That might be changing.

“The financial crisis has served us because people who wanted to make advertisement for their companies were looking for alternative ways, so they started listening to us,” says Fakharany, who expects that in Egypt the online share of advertising expenditure will rise to five percent by the end of the year.In the meantime, Fakharany's target market is medium and small companies.“I am not worried about big companies. If they don’t want to advertise with us now, they will later. I am rather thinking of the hundreds of thousands of small and medium companies who want to advertise but don’t want to spend so much money.”Google’s advertising operation in Egypt started in 2008. Its work is empowered by an agreement with the Egyptian government and signed by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology.

Under this agreement, the state pays Google for advertising Egyptian services and products online in the fields of technology, investment, trade, travel and tourism.But convincing local businesses to invest in online advertising is not easy. “The internet is normally a socialist construct," says Mostafa Abu Gamra, head of Techno Wireless. "You go on Google, search for something, thousands of websites respond to your question and you don’t pay a penny. There was no way to translate any of the services of the internet into a financial return. But when Google came to the region, it started to establish some mobility between different markets and among publishers.”

Techno Wireless partners with Google in Egypt to provide online media services to advertisers, helping them to plan their online campaigns and target audiences.Abu Gamra assures that advertising does not compromise the democratic nature of the web.

“Google allows publishers to monetize their content by adding advertisements. They think about what the user wants and how to give him truthful and convenient responses," he says. "There is also a dimension of equal opportunity. As an advertiser, I compete on equal footing with anyone: a kid, a big entrepreneur and a medium business.”

“For the first time in the world of advertisement, it’s not the money that determines the ad quality, but it is the consumers who click on the ad and decide its quality.”The Google team in Egypt devotes a lot of their time to raising awareness about the differences between traditional and online advertising, which is a more direct marketing tool, where little is spent on production.

Online advertising capitalizes on the vast world of the internet, where consumers are always looking for something. “People are looking for deals all the time, a good book, a good entertainment, a good educational program, a new job, etc.,” says Fakharany.

As part of its marketing of the service, last week Google launched a step-by-step guide for companies and individuals to set up their online ads using AdWords and learn how to monitor interest in their brands.

Abu Gamra’s company, and others like it, complement Google’s awareness raising work about online advertisement. Abu Gamra mentions that among different forms of online advertisement, Egyptian advertisers tend to choose banners, which have their roots in traditional media.

“We tell them that unlike the ad banner you find on the bridge that does not talk to you, the internet is a conversational channel," he says. "You don’t have to do banners only. You can have a YouTube space. You can do a small game that takes whoever clicks to a sophisticated landing page.”He also says that unlike traditional media, online advertising campaigns aren't over once they are posted. In fact, that's when the campaign starts, with Google providing constant information about traffic that helps to refine the campaign.

“For example," says Abu Gamra, "advertisers were not interested in a search campaign," a form of advertising that focuses on optimizing content for search engines. "Now our customers are learning more because it’s the search campaign that makes traffic. We’re still preaching to the market to understand the whole concept.”Google provides a variety of tools for information gathering, which are shared with online ad publishers to tweak their campaigns.

The message has reached some people in the marketing business, including Dahlia Bishay, the general manager of the marketing firm Incentive House of Egypt.“No one can deny the fact that the internet is becoming a communication tool in the Middle East and is spreading to all social classes, especially during the past five years,” says Bishay. “Online ads are nowadays the least expensive advertisement tool reaching the widest and most diverse platform of audiences, even in the Middle East.”

Not everyone, however, is convinced, particularly among advertisers. Karim Boulos, owner of BMOE, an office supplies firm, says that the efficacy of online ads depends on whether the target audience is online, such as teenagers. “Advertising for iPods is different from advertising for a detergent,” he says. “[BMOE] are more back-to-back in the field of document finishing products, so I am not sure if my target market are internet users.”

Another challenge facing the growth of online advertising in Egypt is that e-commerce has not yet gained solid ground. Many Egyptians are still concerned about using their credit cards online.Online ads have not yet achieved a majority share in the global advertising market, but it is growing. By the end of 2009, 17 percent of advertising in developed countries was online.

But Google’s investment in online advertising capitalizes on the no less than 3.8 billion search queries it receives worldwide on a daily basis.It also capitalizes on expanding internet penetration around the world. Approximately 1.8 billion people use the internet worldwide. In Egypt, the government estimates that roughly 16 million citizens have internet access.

With all those advantages in mind, Fakharany claims that he has the perfect job. “We draft the internet agenda in Egypt, for users, publishers, advertisers and creative agencies. We can see where the internet is going in the next years.”

Advertising:

Egypt Today provides you direct access to a knowledgeable and upscale target audience. With Egypt Todayyou can reach: A large community of affluent, educated Egyptians.Egypt's extensive diplomatic and expatriate communities, in addition to tourists at five-star hotels, who turn to Egypt Today each month for reliable information.Almost all of our print readers live right here in Egypt right in your market.Regular consumers they travel and shop regularly Egypt Today also has special advertising supplements designed to reach specific target audiences. For 2004, our lineup of consumer's guides includes:  January: 52 Weekends (domestic and international travel) February: Hot Wheels (automotive) April: Filthy Lucre (banking) May: Education (pre-K through 12) August: Real Estate October: Our 25 th Anniversary December: A Fork and a Cork (fine dining) Readership Demographics Male 51% Female 49% Egyptians 58% Foreigners 42% Four percent of our readers are under 19; 40% are 20-29, 22% fall in the 30-39 range and 34% are over 40. Our print run spans 11,500 to 15,000 copies per month (it varies with seasonality and special orders); 12% is distributed to subscribers, 40% on Al-Ahram newsstands nationwide and 23% at IBA Media newsstands nationwide. Approximately 25% of our print run is distributed through corporate channels, with the lion's share going to five-star hotels and resorts as well as to trade fairs. In-Cairo distribution (in descending order): Heliopolis, Maadi, Mohandiseen, Downtown, Zamalek, Dokki, Nasr City, Garden City, Giza. Average readers per copy: 4.5 Top-six readers' professions: Banking, tourism, foreign service, petroleum, information technology and government / IGO service. AD SIZES Full page bleed 20.3 X 27.6 cms Full live area 17.5 X 25.0 cms Full page trim size 20.0 X 27.0 cms 0.5 Page horizontal live area 17.5 X 11.5 cms 0.5 Page vertical live area 11.5 X 17.5 cms 1/3 Page horizontal live area 17.5 X 8.0 cms 1/3 Page vertical live area 5.4 X 23.7 cms 1/3 Page square live area 11.5 X 11.5 cms Printing Specs Positive Films CMYK Emulsion Down Screen Rolling 150 To 175 LPI